Ermola Ekaterina
This presentation clearly illustrates the classification of words in the Russian language depending on their use: common and non-common vocabulary (professionalisms, dialectisms, jargon, obsolete words, neologisms). The material is easy to understand, but at the same time reveals the topic in great detail.
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Groups of words by use.
Words in the Russian language, depending on their use, are divided into two groups: commonly used vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use (non-common use).
TO common vocabularyThese include words that are used and understood by all native speakers, regardless of their territorial and social affiliation: dress, building, birch, cat, sit, think, car, etc.Such words are characterized by the stability of their basic meanings, that is, most of them have retained in modern language the same meanings that were recorded in the most ancient written monuments. At the same time, this composition can change, being replenished with new concepts that become generally known.Very often as a synonymIn common vocabulary, the term neutral vocabulary is used. However, not all commonly used words are devoid of emotional and expressive connotations. Thus, the words voditsa, simpleton, yard, little word, etc., in contrast to words that are stylistically neutral, either have expression or are emotionally charged. By using such words, the speaker expresses his positive or negative attitude towards an object or phenomenon.
Common vocabulary- words used in the speech of a limited group of native speakers. These words can be divided into several groups:
1) dialectisms;
2) professionalism;
3) jargon;
4) outdated words;
5) neologisms
Dialectisms - words whose distribution and use are limited to a certain territory.Dialect words are widely used in fiction to convey local color and to characterize the speech of characters. Sometimes in literary works one can find individual cases of the use of dialectisms not only in the speech of characters, but also in the author’s remarks, which serves the purposes of speech characterization and general stylization of the narrative. Dialect words that are often found in the language of fiction are placed in explanatory dictionaries with the mark “reg.” – regional.
Dialectal vocabulary differs from commonly used vocabulary not only in its narrower scope of use, but also in a number of phonetic, grammatical and lexico-semantic features. In accordance with these features, several types of dialectisms are distinguished:
1) phonetic dialectisms– words that reflect the phonetic features of a given dialect: barrel, Vankya, tipyatok (instead of barrel, Vanka, boiling water) – South Russian dialectisms;
2) grammatical dialectisms– words that have grammatical characteristics different from those in the literary language or differ from commonly used vocabulary in morphological structure. Thus, in southern dialects, neuter nouns are often used as feminine nouns (the whole field, such a thing, whose meat she ate);
3) lexical dialectisms- words that differ in both form and meaning from words in common vocabulary: veksha, pryazhenitsa, tenetnik.
Among the lexical dialectisms, local names of things and concepts common in a given area stand out. These words are called ethnographisms. For example, the word paneva is ethnographic - this is how a special type of skirt is called in Ryazan, Tambov, Tula and some other regions.
Professionalisms- words and expressions used by a group of persons united by the nature of their activity, i.e. by profession (in the dictionary marked “specialist” or “professional”). These are mainly the names of tools of production, names of labor processes, and special professional expressions. Since professionalisms are used to denote special concepts only in the field of a particular profession, craft, trade, they do not always correspond to the norms of literary language.
Mostly, professionalisms are used in informal oral speech of people of a certain profession. In written speech, professionalisms are used in publications intended for specialists (booklets, instructions). Professionalisms are also used by writers to create a professional flavor and reproduce the life of a certain professional environment in their works. Unlike common words, which can have multiple meanings, terms within a particular science are usually unambiguous.
Jargonisms (from French “Bird's language”)– words used by people of certain interests, occupations, social or age groups. Slang vocabulary has a narrow scope of use: it is used mainly in communication with people of the same social circle as the speaker. In works of art, slang words can serve to characterize characters in speech and be used for stylization purposes. There are jargons for schoolchildren, students, soldiers, athletes, criminals, hippies, etc. For example, in student jargon, a tail means a failed exam or test, a dorm means a dormitory, a window means a free couple.
Slang vocabulary includes argot words (argotisms, argot). Argotisms – words artificially “invented” for the sake of conspiracy, for example, split - betrayed, informer - informer. Argotisms always have parallel designations among commonly used vocabulary; all of them are characterized by an increased bright expressive and stylistic coloring.
Uncommon vocabulary also includes outdated words. There are two groups of obsolete words.
Historicisms - these are words denoting objects and phenomena that have disappeared from modern life, for example: chain mail, corvee, horse-drawn horse. These words fell out of use along with the objects and concepts they denoted and became passive vocabulary: we know them, but do not use them in our everyday speech.
Archaisms - these are words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by other words. For example: cheeks - cheeks, mirror - mirror, restaurant - restaurant, fisherman - fisherman.
Outdated words are opposed neologisms - words that have limited use because they recently appeared in the language. Language neologisms are used by native speakers in their everyday speech and are known and understood by many. If the existence of a linguistic neologism is justified, pretty soon the neologism enters the active vocabulary and ceases to be recognized as a new word. Neologisms include the following words: merchandiser is a specialist who deals with the presentation of goods directly at a retail outlet, using certain materials and methods specific to a particular company; vending is the sale of goods and services using automated systems (vending machines).
Vocabulary and phraseology
1. Lexical meaning- correlation of the sound shell of a word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. Lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. Lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes the differences that distinguish a given object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “an African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs,” that is, the characteristics that distinguish the giraffe from other animals are listed.
All words in the Russian language have meaning. A word can have one lexical meaning ( unambiguous words): syntax, tangent, cap, secret, etc. Words that have two, three or more lexical meanings are called polysemantic: sleeve, warm. Polysemantic words occur among all independent parts of speech, except numerals. The specific meaning of a polysemantic word can only be determined in context: star - stars lit up in the sky; screen star; Starfish.
The lexical meaning can be explained:
§ descriptively, by characterizing the distinctive features of an object, action, phenomenon;
§ through a single root word;
§ selection of synonyms.
The lexical meaning of the word is given in explanatory dictionaries.
2. Synonyms- words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very similar lexical meaning.
Antonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent.
Homonyms- units of language that are different in meaning, but identical in spelling and sound.
Paronyms- words that are close to each other in sound, the partial coincidence of the external form of which is accidental, that is, not due to either semantics or word-formation processes, for example, time and burden, appeal and operate, etc.
3. " Phraseological turnover“is a linguistic unit reproduced in finished form, consisting of two or more stressed components of a verbal nature, fixed (i.e. constant) in its meaning, composition and structure”
Groups of words by origin and use
By origin, all words in the Russian language are divided into borrowed and native Russian.
Originally Russian- these are words that originated in the Russian language (ladya, life).
Loan words- these are words that came into the Russian language from other languages (shoe, kitchen, lecture):
a) Greek (bed, ship, sail);
b) Latin (exam, student, excursion);
c) French (broth, compote, perfume);
d) German (kitchen, assault);
e) English (football, sports, tram).
A special group of borrowed words consists of Old Church Slavonicisms - words that entered the Russian language from the Old Church Slavonic language.
Old Slavonic prefixes (pre-, through-, niz-), suffixes (-ushch, – yushch, – ashch, – yashch, – zn, – ynya) and roots (-la-, -ra-: enemy, sweet) are so widely penetrated into the Russian language, that with their help new words are created in the language (cooling, healthcare).
Some Old Church Slavonicisms do not have external distinctive features (truth, slander).
The fate of Old Slavonicisms:
– some of them have replaced cognate Russian words (moist, brave);
- others have diverged in meaning from the original Russian words (ignorant - impolite person, ignorant - uneducated);
– still others were supplanted by Russian words (zlato).
The appearance of borrowed words in the Russian language is associated with economic and cultural relations between Russia and various peoples of the West and East.
Borrowed words appear in the language along with the emergence of new objects and concepts, giving them names. In addition, they help to distinguish between the semantic shades of words (export - any shipment, export - sending abroad).
Many of the foreign words are used in bookish speech styles. In this case, you need to avoid mistakes:
– stylistic (He stated with sadness. – Inappropriate use in artistic and colloquial style, appropriate – in official business style);
– lexical (After graduating from school, many people have dilemmas. – Choosing one of two possibilities, appropriate – problems arise).
Words that have fallen out of active use are called obsolete(police officer, person).
Among the obsolete words are:
– historicisms– words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program);
– archaisms- words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).
Types of archaisms:
a) lexical-phonetic (night - night, zlato - gold);
b) lexical and word-formative (fisherman - fisherman);
c) lexical-semantic (words with an outdated lexical meaning: “London is scrupulous”).
Obsolete words are used in various styles of language to represent concepts from a particular era.
New words that appear in a language are called neologisms (from the Greek neos - new) (cybernetics, algorithm). This is due to the fact that all changes that occur in social life are reflected in language. Some words fall out of active use (obsolete words), while at the same time new words appear.
Types of neologisms:
– neologisms used by everyone (airbus);
Neologisms serve to denote concepts that appeared in connection with the development of science, technology, and culture. As a rule, they are found in journalistic and scientific styles of speech.
A few years after their appearance, neologisms may become commonly used (TV, nuclear-powered ship).
According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into commonly used and non-commonly used.
Commonly used- these are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).
TO not commonly used words include:
1. Dialectisms - words used by residents of a particular area (bulba - potatoes, beet - beets).
Types of dialectisms:
– proper lexical (dialectal synonyms of modern common words: kubyt - maybe);
– ethnographic (names of local items: bulba – potato in Belarus);
– semantic (existing both in the literary language and in the dialect, but having a special meaning: gazebo in Siberia - a bench in front of the gate).
Stylistic functions of the use of dialectisms:
– show the features of the area where the events take place;
– create an image of a character, convey the features of his speech.
“Dialectisms are not deviations from accepted linguistic norms that must be eliminated as errors, but highlights that bring life to the language,” said Russian linguist V.I. Chernyshev. Indeed, dialectisms have become an integral part of the literary language. They are used by writers and poets for various ideological and aesthetic purposes. Thus, the role of dialectisms in the work of Sergei Yesenin is great: The greenery shone. (“Green Hairstyle”, 1918); GREEN – sprouting of young grains, most often winter grains. Ozhegov's explanatory dictionary).
2. Professionalisms- words used by people of one profession or another (lashings - fastening boats on ships to protect them from moving away).
Special words are words used in the field of people engaged in one type of work activity.
3. Argo(jargon) - expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth argot)).
Jargons are words characteristic of the colloquial speech of a certain group of people (for example, student jargon: tail - an exam or test not passed on time).
Argotisms are words used by people belonging to isolated social groups, often with the aim of hiding the meaning from others (wet business - murder).
Jargonisms and argotisms can be found in fiction when describing a certain social environment. Depending on the style of speech, words can be bookish or colloquial: – poetism (charm) – colloquial (ish); – exoticisms (aul) – barbarisms (yap); – terms (morphology) – colloquial and literary (beauty). Terms are words or phrases that precisely define concepts (syntax is a section of the Russian language that studies phrases and sentences.)
Morphemics
1. Prefix - is located before the word or other prefixes.
2. The root is the main part of the word.
3. suffix – located after the root or suffix.
4. ending – expresses the grammatical properties of the word.
5. connecting morpheme (interfix), - connecting vowels.
6. postfix – after the end.
1. Non-derivative base – equal to the root.
2. Derivative stem - a stem that was formed in the Russian language.
3. Generating base - from which the derivative was formed.
Word formation
Morphological method - by adding morphemes.
1. Suffix method - by adding a suffix, cap.
2. Prefixal method - by adding a prefix, and the part of speech always remains the same as in the generating word.
3. Prefix-suffix method - by adding a prefix and suffix, the preposition often turns into a prefix: under Moscow - Pod_moskov_y.
4. Zero suffixation - by adding a zero suffix instead of a material one: sigh - sigh_0_(0).
5. Prefixation with zero suffixation is the same as zero suffixation + prefix: grey-haired – pro_sed_0_(0).
6. Postfixation - by attaching a postfix: knock - knock, someone.
7. Prefixed postfixed method - the formation of new words by simultaneous addition of a prefix and a postfix: run - s_run_sya, du_mat - za_dumat_sya.
8. Suffixal_postfixal method - the formation of new words by simultaneous addition of a suffix and a postfix: crowd - crowd_and_t_sya, need - need_t_sya.
9. Addition is a method in which generating stems are added into one derived word. Addition can be carried out 1) without the help of the interfix: sofa_bed and 2) with the help of the interfix (connecting vowel): south and west - south_o_west (0).
10. The complex suffix method (addition + suffixation) is characterized by the addition of generating stems and the simultaneous addition of an interfix and a suffix to them: railway - railway_o_dorozhnyy, to pass the earth - earth_e_prokhod_ets (0).
11. Addition in combination with zero suffixation is the addition of generating bases with the addition of an interfix and an unmaterialized suffix: ice walks - ice_o_hod_0_(0), itself flies - sam_o_let_0_(0).
12. Universalization - (a type of suffixal method) - the process of forming new words from phrases constructed according to the type of agreement (adjective + noun) by attaching the suffix - K to the generating base, isolated from the adjective - K: semolina - man_k_a, Tretyakov Gallery - Tretyakov_k_a, reading room - read_k_a, evening newspaper - evening_k_a, large-circulation newspaper - large-circulation_k_a.
13. Abbreviation - addition of truncated stems or truncated and full words. Abbreviations are of the following types: Letter: USSR, PTU, Komsomol, FSB. Sound: traffic police, TSUM, BAM, TASS, university. Syllabic: executive committee, collective farm, trade union committee. Consisting of the initial part of the first word and the whole of the second: kindergarten, submarine, women's council. Consisting of adding the initial part of the first word of a phrase with the beginning and end or only the end of the second word: military registration and enlistment office (military commissariat), bionics (biological electronics).
14. Truncation is a way of forming words of colloquial style of speech by truncation of the generating stem, regardless of the boundary of the morpheme specialist - specialist, tape recorder - magician, deputy - deputy, teacher - teacher and teacher.
The lexico-syntactic method is the formation of a new word from a whole phrase by “gluing together” its components: crazy - crazy, this day - today, that hour - immediately.
The morphological-syntactic method is a method in which a new word is formed as a result of a transition from one part of speech to another.
Lexical-semantic method - represents the disintegration of the core of a word, in which different meanings of one word diverge so far in meaning that they form separate lexical units: titanium - “a giant who entered into the fight against enemies”, titanium - “a large boiler for water”, titanium is a “hard metal”. In modern Russian language
the three words considered are homonyms.
Independent parts of speech.
Noun
A noun is a part of speech that denotes an object and answers the questions who? What?
Note.
In grammar, a subject is anything that can be asked about. who is this? What is this?
According to their meaning, nouns are divided into own And common nouns,animate And inanimate.
Nouns are masculine, feminine or neuter.
Note.
Nouns do not change by gender.
Nouns vary by case and number.
The initial form of a noun is the nominative singular.
In a sentence, nouns most often are a subject and an object, as well as an inconsistent definition, application, circumstance and the nominal part of a compound predicate.
Proper and common nouns.
Proper nouns are the names of individuals and individual objects.
Proper nouns include:
1. last names (pseudonyms, nicknames), first names, patronymics of people, as well as animal names.
2. geographical names
3. astronomical names
4. names of newspapers, magazines, works of literature and art, factories, ships, etc.
Note.
It is necessary to distinguish proper nouns from proper names.
Proper nouns sometimes turn into common nouns (for example: Ampere - French scientist, ampere - a unit of electric current
Common nouns is a common name for all homogeneous objects and phenomena.
Common nouns can turn into proper nouns (for example: earth - land, Earth - planet of the solar system).
Nouns, animate and inanimate.
Animate nouns serve as names of people, animals and answer the question who?
Inanimate nouns serve as names of inanimate objects, as well as objects of the plant world, and answer the question what?
Inanimate nouns also include nouns such as group, people, crowd, flock, youth, etc.
Number of nouns.
Nouns are used in the singular when we are talking about one thing, and in the plural when we mean several things.
Some nouns are used only in the singular or only in the plural.
Nouns that have only a singular form:
1. Names of many identical persons and objects (collective nouns): youth, children, students, humanity and etc.
2. Names of objects with real meaning: asphalt, iron, strawberries, milk, steel, beets, kerosene and etc.
3. Names of quality or characteristic: whiteness, anger, dexterity, youth, freshness, blue, darkness, blackness and etc.
4. Names of action or state: mowing, chopping, execution, suggestion, burning and etc.
5. Proper names as names of individual objects: Moscow, Volga and etc.
6. Words: burden, udder, flame, crown
Nouns that have only a plural form:
1. Names of composite and paired items: trousers, scales, railings, vices, tongs, rakes, scissors, pitchforks, swings and etc.
2. Names of materials or their waste, residues: whitewash, yeast, pasta, cream, bran, sawdust and etc.
3. Names of time periods, games: hide and seek, blind man's buff, chess, vacation, day, weekdays and etc.
4. Names of actions and states of nature: troubles, elections, negotiations, shoots, frosts, debates and etc.
5. Some geographical names: Carpathians, Fili, Gorki, Athens, Alps, Sokolniki and etc.
Cases of nouns.
There are six cases in Russian. Case is determined by questions.
Nominative - who? or what?
Genitive - whom? or what?
Dative - to whom? or what?
Accusative - whom? or what?
Creative - by whom? or what?
Prepositional - about whom? or about what?
To determine the case of a noun in a sentence, you need:
1. find the word to which the given noun refers;
2. put a question from this word to the noun.
Declension of nouns.
Changing words by case is called declension.
Exists three declensions nouns.
First declension.
The first declension includes feminine nouns with the ending -а (-я) in the nominative singular case (country, land), as well as masculine nouns denoting people with the same endings (young man, uncle).
Second declension.
The second declension includes masculine nouns with a zero ending (shore, day), as well as with endings -о, -е (domishko, domiche) and neuter nouns with endings -о, -е in the nominative singular (word, building ).
Third declension.
The third declension includes feminine nouns with a zero ending in the nominative singular.
Indeclinable nouns.
Ten neuter nouns in -mya (burden, time, udder, banner, name, flame, tribe, seed, stirrup and crown) and the masculine noun path in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases in the singular have 3rd declension noun endings -i, and in the instrumental case they take the endings of nouns of the 2nd declension -em (-em).
Indeclinable nouns.
Indeclinable nouns are those that have the same form for all cases.
Among them there are both common nouns (coffee, radio, cinema, jury) and proper names (Goethe, Zola, Sochi).
Adjective
What is a unit of the Russian language? Definitely a word. With its help, we communicate, convey thoughts and experiences to each other. The article examines thematic groups of words that make it possible to classify the richness of the Russian language, which has more than 150 thousand nouns, verbs and adjectives in its literary dictionary.
Word meanings
The Russian language studies not actions, not signs, but the words that name them. They have two meanings:
- Grammatical (responsibility lies with the ending of the word).
- Lexical (the stem is responsible for it).
To understand what thematic groups of words are, let’s focus on the second point. Lexical meaning is the content, or the correlation historically fixed in people’s minds between the sounding shell and the phenomenon of reality, formalized according to the laws of grammar. A person is capable of thinking in concepts, that is, abstractly from objects, while a word, with its lexical meaning, separates one concept from another.
Generic and species concepts
When a person says the word “desk,” everyone imagines a desk—a piece of furniture for students to sit during classes. No one imagines an ordinary or dining table, because the word contains a set of distinctive features - a kind of generalization. But when the teacher invites the student to sit at his desk, actual meaning appears in the speech. In front of the student stands a specific object of a certain color, size, shape. This suggests that in the meaning of each word there is a denotation (generalization) and a referent (specification).
Among nouns, more general concepts (generic) and more specific (specific) can be distinguished. An example can be seen in the picture above. Thematic groups of words are a set of specific concepts that are combined into a more general one - generic. To understand, let’s look at the diagram (shown below), which discusses how the lexical meaning of a specific concept is formed. It is explained through a generic concept with the addition of specific differences. What's happened sneakers? These are shoes (generic concept) designed for sports. What else can be classified as shoes? Shoes, boots, slates, slippers, clogs, sandals, boots. All these words are combined into a single thematic group - “shoes”.
Thematic inclusions
What concept can be attributed to the words: fishing rod, net, spinning rod, bait, bloodworm, jig, fishing, hooking, bite? Fishing. The example discussed above is a sample of thematic inclusions. The game: “Find the extra word” best helps to understand what thematic groups of words are. Examples of the game are offered in the table below:
In each column you need to find an extra word that is not included in the thematic group. Answer: hare, worm, fox.
Synonyms
One thematic group, like inclusions, may include various parts of speech. The Fishing example includes nouns and verbs. Synonyms are distinguished by the fact that they are one part of speech: film, film, film, cinema; run, rush, rush, scurry; funny, amusing, hilarious, cool. Do they form thematic groups of words? Examples show that synonyms coincide in their lexical meaning and are used by the author only to give the text or statement a certain expressiveness. Most linguists classify synonyms as thematic groups. On average, they consist of several words, but there are exceptions. Thus, the word “very” has 26 synonyms.
The union occurs on the basis of a common characteristic. Take the adjective “red” as an example. The group will contain synonyms such as: ruby, coral, scarlet, red.
To do this you need to know:
- Lexical meaning of the word.
- Have a certain vocabulary.
- Have a broad outlook.
What can help the student? An explanatory dictionary that provides an explanation for every word used in the Russian language. The most famous authors who have collected all the wealth of Russian vocabulary are S.I. Ozhegov and D.N. Ushakov, although there are also more modern publications that have incorporated changes associated with the use of English expressions. For example, T.F. Efremova collected 160 thousand articles.
Thematic groups of words are easy to create for those who read a lot of fiction, actively use synonyms, and are able to identify words with similar meanings in the text. You can take an excerpt from a work of fiction as an example to search for synonyms. This task will also help:
It is necessary to highlight general (generic) concepts for the following words: mother, cow, ruler, calculator, sister, horse, eraser, pencil case, pig, brother, pen, grandfather, goat, grandmother, father, sharpener, sheep, dog.
The following thematic groups of words are distinguished: “Relatives”, “Animals”, “School supplies”.
Examples on the topic “Seasons”
What words can be used to describe phenomena such as seasons? To make it easier to complete the task, subgroups should be distinguished, for example: weather, nature, activities, clothing. They can be expanded. The principle of selection is the selection of generic concepts that underlie the differences between winter, autumn, summer and spring. How to create thematic groups of words? We present the names of the seasons in the table, comparing the subgroups.
| Summer | Autumn | Winter | Spring | |
| Weather | Dankness Frost | Snowfall | Warming Thaw Changeability |
|
| Nature | Forbs | Leaf fall Gilding Bad weather Withering | Awakening Snowdrops Thawed patches Bloom |
|
| Classes | Blanks | Subbotnik Arrival of birds |
||
| Cloth | Swimsuit Sandals | Gloves | Cardigan Windbreaker Ankle boots |
The example describes only objects and phenomena, but by analogy it is quite easy to add actions and attributes of objects.
The Russian language has a huge number of words. All of them are divided into groups depending on what lexical feature of the word is meant.
If a word in Russian is used freely, unlimitedly, then it refers to common vocabulary. Common vocabulary is understandable to all people who speak Russian.
Words that are not known to all speakers of Russian are called vocabulary limited use. These include dialect and slang vocabulary, as well as professional and terminological vocabulary.
Uncommon words used in a particular area are called dialectal, for example: kochet(rooster), fall(autumn foliage).
Uncommon words used by certain groups of people to name objects that have their own names in the literary language are called jargon, for example: box(TV), exchanger(currency exchange point).
Professional And terminological vocabulary is vocabulary used in a certain field of human activity. It allows you to distinguish a medical worker from a miner, a musician from a hunter, etc. Among professional words, there are terms denoting scientific concepts and highly specialized words. For example: scalpel, anesthesia, resuscitation(medicine), tempera, canvas, stretcher(art), font, size, binding(publishing), alibi, amnesty, forensic expert(jurisprudence), etc.
Outdated names words that have fallen out of living use. Instead, synonyms are used in modern Russian: this = this, in vain = in vain, very = very.
Some words are not used because they denote objects and phenomena that do not exist in modern life: camisole, caftan, quitrent, corvée.And there are words that have changed their lexical meaning over time. For example, in modern society the noun a shame(“dishonor”) was used in the old days to mean “spectacle.”
Depending on their origin, all words in the Russian language can be divided into two large categories: native vocabulary and vocabulary borrowed from other languages.
Most of the vocabulary consists of words that have originally existed in the Russian language since ancient times ( son, father, oak, tree, sea, moon and before.) or appeared as a result of word formation ( selfishness, two weeks etc.) This original Russian words.
Another way to constantly expand your vocabulary is by borrowing words from other languages of the world. Such vocabulary usually forms a large group loanwords(foreign languages). And all these words, having changed in sound and spelling, live according to the laws of the Russian language.
Groups of words by use: commonly used, stylistically colored words, dialectisms, professional words and words-terms, colloquial words, jargons
The most thematically stylistic layer of the language's vocabulary consists of commonly used words, used freely, without any restrictions. These words are associated with concepts common to most native speakers; at the same time, they are common, understandable to the general public, names of objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality: homeland, freedom, good, earth, milk, no, one, air, son, so, me.
They are characterized by the stability of their basic meanings, that is, most words have retained in the modern language the same meanings that were recorded in the most ancient monuments of writing (run, water, mother, first, three). At the same time, this composition can change, replenished with new concepts that become generally known (nuclear, bank, ecology, computer, dream, president, robot), or due to changes in the stylistic marking of the word, its lexical and syntactic compatibility. Commonly used vocabulary is predominantly stylistically neutral, cross-style, but not identical to it, and contains a certain part of freely used emotionally expressive words: mom, crazy, despite.
Commonly used (or popular) vocabulary includes both native Ukrainian vocabulary and well-known borrowed ones.
Dialect (Greek dialektos “adverb”)- patois, a local variety of language.
Words (stable phrases) that are not part of the lexical system of a literary language, but are elements of the vocabulary of a particular dialect, are called dialectisms. These are local names of concepts of the national language: kozhanok (short fur coat), potato (potato), sting (nettle), squirrel (squirrel), rooster (rooster) names of objects and concepts that do not extend beyond a certain dialect: puddles (a type of belt), pants (type of trousers) words that differ in meaning from the words of the common language: mountain (attic), pies (dumplings).
Dialectisms enrich the Russian language, especially synonyms. They are used in works of art to reflect the life and speech of people in a certain area. “When Ivan was seven years old, he already looked at the world differently. He knew a lot. He knew that the world is dominated by evil spirits, the aridnik (evil spirit) rules everything; that the forest is full of goblin who grazed their margin: deer, hares and Serena; There is a cheerful Chugaist wandering around there, who is now asking everyone he meets to dance and is tearing apart the demands; the voice of an ax living in the forest. Higher up, in the waterless distant days, the yavki deploy their endless tanks, and the devil is hiding on the rocks” (M. Kotsyubinsky).
Professional vocabulary
Professionalisms (Latin professio “occupation, specialty”)- words and phrases characteristic of the language of people of certain professions. These are mainly the names of tools of production, names of labor processes, and special professional expressions. Since professionalisms are used to denote special concepts only in the field of a particular profession, craft, trade, they do not always correspond to the norms of literary language. Professionalisms act as informal synonyms for deadlines. Among the professionalisms we can distinguish scientific-technical, professional-industrial, colloquial-slang.
1. Words and phrases inherent in the language of sailors: cook - cook; galley - kitchen; cockpit - crew rest room tank - bow of the ship, go to sea - swim.
2. Professionalism of employees in banking, finance, trade and similar areas: withdraw cash, add up, estimate balance.
3. The names of aerobatics among pilots: corkscrew, roll, loop, dive, etc.
4. Professionalism of personal computer users: mother - motherboard; keyboard - keyboard; reset information - rewrite; screw - hard drive.
5. Professionalism of musicians: plywood - phonogram; remix - an old melody in a new arrangement promote (song, name) - advertise.
6. Some professionalisms are characterized by a shift in emphasis from the traditional normalized position to a different composition: nuclear, compass, Murmansk, rapport similar.
Mostly, professionalisms are used in informal oral speech of people of a certain profession. In written speech, professionalisms are used in publications intended for specialists (booklets, instructions, advice).
Professionalisms are also used by writers to create a professional flavor and reproduce the life of a certain professional environment in their works.
Deadlines are accepted by scientists, military personnel, athletes, and activists. Arts in their professional activities. These are words that name certain concepts:
— Sciences: (sound, ecology, simplification, psychoanalysis);
— Techniques: (detector, processor, speaker)
— Arts: (arioso, intermezzo, role).
Words used only in oral everyday speech are called colloquial. In works of art they are used to provide a derogatory, rude characterization to the person depicted.
Colloquial words also include rosiyanizmi (rusisms) - words borrowed from the Russian language, located outside the Ukrainian language and not recorded in its dictionaries: next (instead of next).
Outside the common language are jargons (from French: Bird's language) - words or expressions used by a small group of people. When communicating, these people add specific emotionally charged words to their speech: cool, hang out, cool.