In the late 1890s - early 1900s. most of the countries of the world have already developed according to . In each state, capital played its role and influenced economic development in its own way. In the Russian Empire, which quickly moved to the stage of industrial development, capitalism wore a special form - military-feudal.

Attempts to reform at the end of the XIX century.

In the second half of the XIX century. Emperor Alexander II made several important changes in the internal life of the country. As a result, the basis for further transformations was created, which could not stop even the emperor, who was killed on March 1, 1881. The next ruler, Alexander the Third, devoted a lot of time to the economic stability of the country. Under him, the government was engaged in production, industry, laying railways, and mining. To the main achievements of the 1880s - 1890s. can be attributed:

• Start of construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
• The introduction of the ruble, backed by gold reserves.
• Strengthening the role of entrepreneurs.
• Stimulation of competition between Russian and foreign companies.
• Increasing demand for manufactured goods.
• An increase in the number of workers in enterprises and mines, thanks to which a new social class appeared.
• Growth in demand for various groups of industrial goods and an increase in exports of agricultural products.

The state, represented by the emperor and the government, constantly increased investments in metallurgy, coal, oil, gas, iron and steel production. Financial stability contributed to the rapid development of the banking sector and the implementation of a protectionist policy towards enterprises and peasants.

Economic Development Trends

In the 1890s the state entered on the wave of the rise, which began in the mid-1880s. after a series of reforms. The Russian government at that time actively supported the following sectors of the economy:

• banking sector.
• Industry and production.
• transport infrastructure.
• Development of communications between production, agriculture, trade, market.

The attraction of foreign investment also played a big role in successfully overcoming the economic lag behind the countries of Western Europe. The main sources of funding were Belgium, France, Germany and the UK. Joint ventures were created, including mines, monopolies, joint-stock companies b companies.

At the same time, negative manifestations were observed, caused by several factors:

Low labor productivity against the backdrop of high rates of economic development.

Heavy dependence on external grain supplies and foreign investment, which caused several industrial and production crises. One of them was observed during 1898 - 1904, and the second - from 1907 to 1910.

Disproportionate distribution of production forces in the Russian Empire.

The existence of a multi-structural structure of the economy. At the turn of the XIX - early XX centuries. in Russia there were private capitalist, monopoly and state-monopoly enterprises. At the same time, the small-scale industry was actively developing.

• In the countryside, capitalism in the early years of the twentieth century. never got in. In the villages there was a community with a semi-serf and natural character of farming.

So, in the twentieth century. Russia entered as a capitalist country in which there were ambiguous trends in economic development.

Emergence of capitalist enterprises

Capitalist relations in the economy contributed to the emergence of new business forms that at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. determined the directions of development of the market, trade, sectors of industry and agriculture.

We are talking about monopolies and their varieties - cartels, syndicates, trusts.

Under monopoly It is customary to understand large enterprises that were created by the state in various industries and the banking sector to control the production and marketing of a particular type of product.

Cartel - the very first form of monopolies, in which the participating enterprises entered into an agreement on the regulation of production volumes, the conditions for the sale of goods, and the hiring of labor. At the same time, all companies that were part of the cartel retained financial and industrial independence.

Syndicate - enterprises agree among themselves on the distribution of orders, the purchase of raw materials and the sale of goods through a single sales company. All members of the syndicate renounce financial independence, but retain industrial independence.

Trust - any independence is taken away from enterprises, which causes them to turn into departments of a large production process. Trusts monopolize a certain industrial branch, turning out homogeneous products.

Emergence of monopolies

For the first time, monopolistic associations, which became cartels, appeared in Russia at the end of the 19th century. Such enterprises penetrated the sugar and oil industries. They quickly developed and subordinated smaller companies. In the twentieth century country has entered the height of the industrial crisis, which caused the ruin of enterprises, especially small ones. Large monopolies, represented by syndicates and penetrating into metallurgy, the mining sector, and mechanical engineering, “survived”.

The very first syndicate appeared in 1902 and was called Prodamet. Eight years later, Prodamet controlled more than 80% of the sale of ferrous metallurgy and products made from it. Almost immediately after Prodamet, a syndicate for the sale of pipes and pipe-rolling production, Pipe Sales, appeared.

The second stage in the development of syndicates began in 1907, when such enterprises arose as:

• "Produgol".
• "Nrodarud".
• "Prodvagon".
• "Roof".
• "Copper".
• "Mazut".
• The Nobel Brothers Association, etc.

A characteristic feature of the second stage of monopolies in Russia was that syndicates and other similar enterprises penetrated the sugar, cotton, linen, light, rubber, and transport industries.

There were also large banking syndicates, with many branches and offices throughout the country. They worked not only in Russia, but also abroad, maintained contacts with foreign banks. The financial activity of such structures was beneficial to industrial, oil, and transport enterprises.

Gradually, the banks became shareholders in large companies, buying up and reorganizing factories, establishing control over the roads. There was a fusion of industrial and banking capital, which contributed to the formation of financial capital. Before 1914, he owned the transport, manufacturing and banking sectors, trade, and industry.

The state intervened in the economy all the time, creating conditions for the development of state-monopoly capital. So the imperial house and the government gained access to mechanical engineering, transport, metallurgy, and shipbuilding. Regulation was carried out first through government orders, and then through the creation of state-monopoly organizations.

Monopolies were present in large areas, cooperated with private capital and did not sink into agriculture. Only a small part of the agricultural sector was involved in these processes, so the natural character of production continued to dominate there.

Agriculture

Russia at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. remained an agrarian country, where more than 80% of the population was employed in agriculture. Capitalism penetrated the villages very slowly. The process accelerated only after the agrarian reform in 1906, the author of which was Pyotr Stolypin.

The characteristic features of the development of agriculture at that time were:

• Agrarian overpopulation and land depletion due to the grain specialization of the agricultural sector.
• Price policy for grain The foreign market was determined not by the Russian government, but by strong competition with other "grain" states - Australia, the USA and Argentina.
• Agriculture was unprofitable and unprofitable, the increase in production was only among the landlords and wealthy peasants.
• Constant crop failures and famine, which are constantly due to outdated farming methods.
• Modernization only partially affected agriculture.
• Preservation of landlord and communal landownership, which hindered the penetration of capitalist elements into the agrarian sector.

The situation began to change only after 1906-1910, when an agrarian reform was carried out in Russia. Most of the peasants left the communities, were able to create their own farms, receive support from the state. The landlords continued to advocate an intensive way of farming, they slowed down any innovations, giving preference to the accumulation of capital.

However, before the First World War, the agricultural sector received a new impetus to development. This allowed Russia to increase the export of grain, food, and begin a larger-scale modernization of agriculture.

Outcome

Russian economy at the end of the 19th - in the first years of the 20th centuries. showed conflicting development trends. Industry and production, the banking system, transport were actively developing, railways were being laid, which at that time were the main communications in the country. The extractive sector, oil, coal, metallurgy enjoyed state and private capitalist support.

Monopolies made it possible to overcome the crisis in production and form a new social class of workers. But the agricultural sector did not get into this process, although Russia was an agrarian country.

As a result of economic development in the post-reform period (especially the industrial boom of the 90s of the 19th century, which ended by 1880-1890), the system of Russian capitalism finally took shape. This was expressed in the growth of entrepreneurship and capital, the improvement of production, its technological re-equipment, and the increase in the number of hired labor in all spheres of the national economy. Simultaneously with other capitalist countries, a second technical revolution was taking place in Russia (acceleration of the production of means of production, widespread use of electricity and other achievements of modern science), which coincided with industrialization. From a backward agrarian country, Russia by the beginning of the 20th century. became an agrarian-industrial power (82% employed in agriculture). In terms of industrial output, it entered the top five countries (England, France, the USA and Germany) and was increasingly drawn into the world economic system.

In modern science, there are three echelons of modernization:

1. Countries with a high level of development of capitalism (England, France, USA)
2. Countries with an average (Germany, Japan) and weak-average (Russia, Austria-Hungary) level of development of capitalism
3. Countries of weak development of capitalism (countries of Latin America, Africa, Asia)

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. capitalism has entered a new, monopolistic stage. Powerful industrial and financial associations (industrial monopolies and financial unions) were formed. Gradually there was a fusion of industrial and financial capital, industrial-financial groups took shape. They occupied a dominant position in the economy - they regulated the volume of production and sales, dictated prices, divided the world into spheres of influence. Their interests were increasingly subordinated to the domestic and foreign policy of the capitalist states. The system of monopoly capitalism, changing and adapting to new historical realities, persisted throughout the 20th century.

The special character of capitalism at the turn of the century was noted by many scientists and politicians, in particular the English economist John Hobson. According to his version (and also according to V.I. Lenin), the characteristic features of imperialism are:

1. creation in the industry of large associations, enterprises - monopolies (to draw an analogy with modern TNCs - transnational corporations), dictating their own rules of the game in the market;
2. the formation, as a result of the merger of banking capital with industrial capital, of a new, more maneuverable and active one, linking banks, enterprises, communications, the service sector, a type of capital - financial into a single system;
3. the export of capital to other countries begins to dominate merchandise exports, which makes it possible to obtain excess profits through the exploitation of cheap labor, cheap raw materials and low land prices;
4. economic division of the world between unions of monopolies;
5. political, territorial division of the world between leading countries, colonial wars.

Monopolies: large economic associations, which concentrated in their hands most of the production and marketing of goods. The main forms of monopolies:

Cartel: participants retain their production independence, while jointly solving issues of production volume, sales of products, profit is distributed according to the share of participation;

Syndicate: production and legal independence of enterprises is preserved, the volume of products, prices, terms of sale are determined; sales are centralized;

Trust: participants lose their production, and often legal viability; most often arise in industries that produce homogeneous products;

Concern: diversified association with independence in management, but with complete financial dependence

The process of formation of monopoly capitalism was also characteristic of Russia. It affected her economic, social and political life. Along with the manifestation of general patterns in Russia, there were some peculiarities of monopoly capitalism. This was due to a number of factors.

First, historical - it switched to capitalism later than many European countries.

Secondly, economic and geographical - an immense territory with various natural conditions and its uneven development.

Thirdly, socio-political - the preservation of autocracy, landlordism, class inequality, political lack of rights of the broad masses, national oppression.

Fourth, national - the different level of economic and socio-cultural state of the numerous peoples of the empire also predetermined the originality of Russian monopoly capitalism.

There are four stages in the process of monopolization in Russia:

1880-1890s - the emergence of the first cartels on the basis of temporary agreements on joint prices and the division of sales markets, the strengthening of banks;

1900-1908 - creation of large syndicates, banking monopolies, concentration of banks; 3. 1909-1913 - Creation of “vertical” syndicates, uniting enterprises for the purchase of raw materials, for their production and marketing; the emergence of trusts and concerns; coalescence of industrial "banking capital, the creation of financial capital;

1913-1917 - the emergence of state-monopoly capitalism; merging of financial capital, monopolies with the state apparatus.

Russia is usually attributed to the second echelon of modernization. There are different points of view of researchers on the question of the level of development of capitalism in Russia: average or weak-medium. In addition, along with the opinion about the “catching up” nature of Russian modernization (formational approach), there is an opinion about the special path of Russia's development, about the uselessness and futility of the “race for the leader” (civilizational approach).

Peculiarities

1. In Russia, railway construction unfolded before the industrial revolution, being a powerful stimulus, on the one hand, for the industrial development of the country, and on the other, for the capitalist evolution of the entire national economy.
2. The system of Russian factory production in many industries took shape without going through the previous stages - crafts and manufactory.
3. The formalization of the credit system took place in a different sequence in Russia. By the beginning of the XX century. this system was represented primarily by large and largest joint-stock commercial banks, and the rapid growth of medium and small credit institutions occurred only at the time of the pre-war industrial boom.
4. There was a rapid growth of various forms of economic organization of production - small-scale private capitalist, joint-stock, state-capitalist, monopoly, and then state-monopoly.
5. Russia was characterized not by the export, but by the import of capital.
6. A high degree of concentration of production and labor force has been created.
7. An important feature of the capitalist evolution of Russia was that the autocratic state played a huge role in economic life, in the formation of the basic elements of new relations. State intervention in economic life was expressed:

• in the creation of state-owned factories (military production), which were excluded from the sphere of free competition;
• in state control over railway transport and the construction of new roads (2/3 of the railway network belonged to the state);
• in the fact that the state owned a significant part of the land;
• the existence of a significant public sector in the economy;
• in the establishment of protectionist tariffs by the state, the provision of state loans and orders;
• in the creation by the state of conditions for attracting foreign investment (in 1897, a monetary reform was carried out (Witte), which eliminated bimetallism and established the gold backing of the ruble, its convertibility).

The state actively patronized the development of domestic industry, banking, transport, and communications. Significant foreign investment began to flow into the country. But the following factors negatively affected the development of the Russian economy:

• the multistructural nature of the economy - along with the private capitalist, monopolistic and state-monopoly, small-scale (handicraft industry), semi-serfdom and natural-patriarchal (community) structures were preserved;
• uneven and profound disproportions in the development of individual sectors;
• dependence on foreign grain markets and foreign investment, as a result of which Russia had a hard time surviving the crises of 1898-1904 and 1907-1910;
• a combination of high rates of economic development with low labor productivity (2-3 times lower than in Europe), a lag in the production of products per population and technical equipment of labor;
• the Russian bourgeoisie did not have access to power and was not free to make decisions; it never left the class framework of the guild merchant class;
• the presence of powerful bureaucratic capital, which was a huge state economy - colossal land and forest funds, mines and metallurgical plants in the Urals, Altai, Siberia, military factories, railways, a state bank, communications enterprises that belonged to the treasury and were managed not by bourgeois, but feudal-bureaucratic methods.

Industry

Russia was characterized by cyclicality.

Crisis of 1900-1903 - Falling prices, reduced production, mass unemployment.

1901 - steam locomotive building syndicate "Prodparovoz"

1902 - syndicates "Prodamet" and "Pipe Sale"

1904-1908 - Decline in the rate of industrial production (depression).

Since 1909, an industrial boom associated with the growth of military orders, the extensive investment of financial (including foreign) funds. The share of domestic products in the world market has almost doubled.

2nd place in the world - oil production

4th - mechanical engineering

5th - mining of coal, iron ore, steel smelting

At the same time, Russia ranked 15th in the world in terms of electricity production, and some industries (automobile and aircraft construction) did not exist at all. In the production of industrial goods per capita, Russia lagged behind the leading capitalist countries by 5-10 times.

Agriculture

Despite the accelerated development of industry, the agricultural sector remained the leader in terms of share in the country's economy. 82% of its population was employed in this industry. It ranked first in the world in terms of production: it accounted for 50% of the world's rye harvest, 25% of the world's wheat exports. Agriculture features:

• grain specialization of agriculture, which led to the agrarian
• overpopulation and land depletion;
• dependence on grain prices in the foreign market in the face of increased competition from the United States, Argentina, and Australia;
• the low capacity of the bulk of the peasant farms, the increase in production was noted only in the landlord farms and the farms of wealthy peasants (no more than 15-20% of all peasants);
• the location of Russia is a “zone of risky agriculture”, which, with low agricultural technology, led to chronic crop failures and famine;
• Preservation of semi-serfdom and patriarchal vestiges in the countryside The agrarian sector was included in the modernization process only partially. It was the problems of agriculture that became the main core of the economic, social and political life of the country at the beginning of the century.

Thus, Russia has embarked on the path of modernization lagging behind Western Europe. The contradictions in the development of the Russian economy were connected precisely with the insufficiency of drawing its individual sectors into modernization. Autocracy and the political dominance of the nobility were a serious brake on the path of economic development.

Finance

Under the conditions of monopoly capitalism, the financial system of Russia was determined by the state and private forms of banking capital. The main place was occupied by the State Bank, which performed two central functions: issue and credit. He provided support to banking monopolies, was engaged in state lending to industry and trade. The Noble Land and Peasant Land State Banks contributed to the strengthening of capitalist relations in agriculture. At the same time, with their credit policy, they supported landownership.

A significant role was played by the system of joint-stock commercial banks, which took an active part in the development of the credit system.

In Russia, there was a concentration and centralization of capital by large joint-stock banks (Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg International, Russian for Foreign Trade, Azov-Don). They combined 47% of all assets. On their basis, a financial oligarchy was formed, closely connected with the bureaucracy and the big nobility. It penetrated into all spheres of the economy, had a strong influence on the socio-political life of the country.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the state financial system was in a difficult position. Neither the establishment of a wine monopoly in 1895, nor the monetary reform of 1897 helped. The state budget was burdened by the costs of maintaining the bureaucratic and police apparatus, a huge army, conducting an aggressive foreign policy, and suppressing popular uprisings.

The crisis of 1900-1903 dealt a severe blow to public finances. The government treasury was effectively devastated by efforts to save money-losing industrial enterprises and prop up a crumbling banking system. After the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. and revolutions of 1905-1907. Russia's public debt reached 4 billion rubles. The government tried to reduce the budget deficit by increasing direct and indirect taxes, reducing spending on economic, military and cultural reforms. Large government foreign loans temporarily supported the financial system, but the annual payments on them on the eve of the First World War reached a huge figure of 405 million rubles.

Transport

Unlike other sectors of the national economy, the transport system at the beginning of the 20th century. has not undergone significant changes. Rail transport occupied a leading position in the domestic transportation of goods and passengers. However, the extensive state construction of railways was curtailed due to lack of funds. Attempts to organize private railway construction did not give positive results. In terms of the overall provision of rail tracks, Russia lagged far behind the countries of Western Europe and the USA. The vast territory was not easy to cover with an extensive railway network. Construction in the 80s of the XIX century. railway in Central Asia (from Krasnovodsk to Samarkand) and the Great Siberian Railway (from Chelyabinsk to Vladivostok) in 1891-1905. was a significant step in solving this transport problem.

Waterways continued to play an important role. The river fleet of Russia outnumbered the flotillas of other countries in its numbers and was well equipped. Own merchant marine fleet was small. The bulk of Russian cargo was transported by foreign ships.

The road network has increased very little. Russia remained a country of highways and country roads, where horse-drawn carriage prevailed. The car at that time was a luxury item for the privileged classes.

In general, for the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century. characterized by the coincidence of the processes of industrialization and monopolization. The economic policy of the government was aimed at accelerated industrial development and was of a protectionist nature. In many respects, the state took the initiative in the development of capitalist relations, using the methods of economic recovery tested in other countries. At the beginning of the XX century. the gap between Russia and the leading capitalist powers was significantly reduced, its economic independence and the possibility of pursuing an active foreign policy were ensured. Russia has become a medium-developed capitalist country. Its progress was based on the powerful dynamics of economic development, which created a huge potential for further forward movement. It was interrupted by the First World War.

Reforms of S. Yu. Witte

He had a significant influence on the domestic and foreign policy of the Russian government, actively contributed to the development of Russian capitalism and tried to combine this process with the strengthening of the monarchy. Witte made extensive use of scientific and statistical data in his work. On his initiative, major economic events were carried out.

Under Witte, state intervention in the economy significantly expanded: in addition to customs and tariff activities in the field of foreign trade and legal support for entrepreneurial activity, the state supported certain groups of entrepreneurs (primarily those associated with the highest government circles), softened conflicts between them; supported some areas of industry (mining and metallurgical industry, distillation, railway construction), and also actively developed the state economy. Witte paid special attention to personnel policy: he issued a circular on the recruitment of persons with higher education, sought the right to recruit personnel on the basis of practical work experience. The management of industry and trade was entrusted to V. I. Kovalevsky.

In general, on the initiative of Witte, major economic measures were carried out:

strengthening the role of the state in the economy:

Introduction of uniform tariffs for railways;

State regulation of domestic and foreign trade through the first system of taxes;

The concentration of most of the railways in the hands of the state;

Expansion of the public sector in industry;

Activation of the activities of the State Bank;

Introduction of a state monopoly on the alcohol trade; 2) strengthening private enterprise:

Flexible tax legislation;

Fighting the budget deficit;

Strengthening of the national currency (the monetary reform of 1897 abolished bimetallism and introduced the gold equivalent of the ruble);

Moderate protectionism towards foreign investors.

Witte proposed a number of measures aimed at the destruction of the community and the transformation of the peasant into the owner of the land, as well as at improving the situation of the workers. Witte's program did not find proper support in the immediate environment of the guy.

Despite the far from complete implementation of his plans, Witte did a lot to turn Russia into an industrial country. Under him, the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the CER was started, finances were significantly strengthened, and the budget deficit was reduced. The authorities did not have enough foresight to follow the path of reforms "from above" and carry out the political modernization of the country. The next attempt to change the face of Russia was made "from below", during the revolution of 1905-1907.

P.S. Taxes and duties of the peoples of Siberia at the beginning of the 20th century (Lev Dameshek)

The uneven distribution of taxes and taxes, their high amounts gave rise to persistent and numerous arrears, noted among all categories of indigenous people. For 5 years (1895 - 1900), the settled “foreigners” of the Yenisei province had an average of 62% arrears in state zemstvo duties, and 71.4% in private zemstvo duties. Among the nomadic "foreigners" these figures were 19.5 and 32.8%, respectively. The discrepancy between the size of taxes and the level of solvency of the rural aboriginal population gave rise to arrears in other types of tax payments. Sources note chronic arrears in the payment of poll and quitrent taxes, the main type of taxation of settled aborigines. In the Yenisei province, arrears in per capita taxes amounted to 15.7, quitrent - 7.5%. A certain reduction in salary arrears, which is noticed from time to time, is by no means explained by an increase in the solvency of the natives, but by the shameless extortion of them by the tsarist authorities, especially when collecting local taxes. At the same time, the confiscation of property and its sale at auction, the arrest of the ancestors and village foremen, and other forms of administrative coercion, up to the sending of military teams, were widely practiced. But, despite these measures, arrears constantly increased. In the Tobolsk province, for example, after the transfer of part of the nomads to the category of settled, the tax system fell even more heavily on foreigners. In 1891, arrears were calculated at 87,566 rubles, which was 140% of the annual salary, in 1901 - already 98,023 rubles. In the Yakutsk region in 1892, arrears in zemstvo payments amounted to 187,664 rubles. By 1900, thanks to the "efforts of the administration," their amount was reduced to 116,589 rubles, but further collection of arrears remained problematic for the local administration.

As a result, we note that in the period under review, taxes and duties of the indigenous population of Siberia were of a mixed nature in form and content. In the total taxation of the peoples of the region, the share of local and personal duties accounted for less than 50% of monetary payments. The taxes and duties of the settled aborigines in practice did not differ in any way from the tax obligations of the Russian peasantry. However, the most characteristic form of tax duties for nomadic and wandering "foreigners" - the absolute majority of the indigenous population - was yasak.

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The 20th century has become one of the most turbulent and dynamic periods in the history of mankind, many important events and cardinal changes (almost revolutionary) have occurred in politics, science, and society. It is natural that economic history of the 20th century was no less turbulent and was characterized by huge achievements and no less loud falls.

At the beginning of the century, the economies of most countries experienced rapid industrial growth, which was a continuation of the recent industrial revolution. Various technical innovations were actively introduced, such as automobiles, assembly line production, etc. International trade was also actively developing, the volume of which grew, thanks to which various stock markets also received significant development, in fact, the foundation of the modern world stock market was laid.

During the First World War, a number of new states stood out - leaders in the world economy, one of which was the United States, there was a new wave of migration to this country, the economy and all other areas of activity of which experienced tremendous growth.

At the same time, the former leaders, such as Great Britain, Germany, were losing their positions as a result of wars and other factors. The most important event was the revolution in Russia and the formation of the USSR, which marked the beginning of a 70-year attempt to create an ideal communist society and a global confrontation between two economic models - capitalist and communist.

It should also be noted that the Great Depression of the 30s, which became one of the first and largest economic crises in history. An equally important role in economic history of the 20th century the Second World War also played a role, which caused enormous damage to the world economy, but also served as a stimulating factor to some extent. As a result, the current political and economic system of the world was formed, which, although it changed in the future, but already in an evolutionary way, without any special global upheavals.

It should also be noted the increasing impact on the economy of the fruits of technological progress, the emergence of new means of communication, a sharp reduction in the cost of international transportation and other factors played a significant role in the history of the economy of the 20th century.

Also, among the important events, it is worth noting the rejection of the gold standard in the second half of the century, the beginning of free currency conversion and, accordingly, the emergence of the Forex market.

One of the most important events of the end of the century was the collapse of the USSR, the formation of new states and their transition to the capitalist path of development. The events of 1991, as a result of which the USSR ceased to exist, played a big role, since a huge market, previously practically not integrated into the world economy, became available to world capital.

At the same time, of course, the collapse of a huge union state, a complete change in its economic, political and ideological development model was accompanied by many negative consequences, many of which have not yet been overcome and a number of countries of the former USSR, including Ukraine, have not been able to completely transition to free market relations, that is, their economies are in the nature of transitional and unstable, with all the ensuing consequences.

In addition to the collapse of the USSR, in parallel in the Western countries, there was a transition to a post-industrial economy, which was led by a number of factors, including the development of information technology and a sharp increase in labor productivity due to automation.

What are the events in economic history of the 20th century do you think are the most important?

Andrey Malakhov, professional investor, financial consultant

The main features and trends of economic development in the 20th century

Economic development in recent times has been uneven and ambiguous for different countries and regions. But in general, there are several main trends that are characteristic of the economies of all countries.

1. The entire course of the development of the world economy in the 20th century determined the deep split of the world, the beginning of which was laid by the October Revolution in Russia. The world has split into two socio-economic systems: a capitalist, based on a market economy, and a socialist, command-administrative system. Long years of confrontation began - economic, political, ideological and military. The militarization of the economy, primarily of the leading countries, is intensifying. The arms race bled the economy, absorbing huge financial, intellectual and material resources. The split of the world intensified with the formation of the world socialist system after the Second World War and ended in the second half of the 1980s and early 1990s with the collapse of the USSR and the world socialist system.

2. The modern economy of all countries is developing under the influence of the scientific and technological revolution (NTR). Scientific and technological revolutions are deep, radical changes in all elements of the productive forces: in engineering, technology, materials, energy sources, information storage and processing systems, in the position of a person in production (new industries are emerging, rocket technology has been created, nuclear energy is used, information, laser and biotechnology, materials with desired properties have been created, genetic engineering is being developed, etc.). The face of the agricultural sector is changing, a “green revolution” is taking place, designed to solve the problem of hunger (electronics, advances in chemistry, genetic engineering, drip irrigation, etc. are widely used in agriculture). The industrial era is being replaced by a post-industrial, informational one.

The achievements of scientific and technological revolution directly affect the growth of incomes and improvement of the quality of life of the population (modern household appliances, computers, personal transport, modern building technologies are widely used).

In the 60s - 70s. there was a transition of developed countries to a predominantly intensive type of economic growth based on the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. The main reason for this transition is the limited nature of all types of resources and the collapse of the colonial system, which was the source of these resources for the metropolises.

3. The main positive feature of economic development in the 20th century was the strengthening of state regulation of the economy. The globalization of the economy, the complication of the modern market, have led to a decrease in its ability to self-regulate. The following internal and external reasons necessitated its external regulation:

Increasing economic instability (systematic economic crises);

The aggravation of social problems and the intensification of the class struggle at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries;

Monopolization of the economy;

Large-scale wars and local conflicts with their negative economic consequences;

Strengthening inflationary processes;

Globalization of the economy, etc.

Based on this, the main goals of strengthening state intervention in the economy were:

Ensuring stable economic growth (without deep recessions, prolonged depressions and overheating of the economy during economic recovery);

Ensuring social stability and class peace in society;

Antimonopoly regulation and protection of competition in the market;

anti-inflationary regulation,

Foreign economic regulation aimed at integrating national economies into the world market economy, etc.

The main forms of state participation in the economy are: state forecasting, goal setting and programming of the economy (not to be confused with planning in an administrative economy); legislative activity and control over the execution of laws; state property and state entrepreneurial activity; regulation of the main macroeconomic parameters by financial and monetary policy instruments, etc.

The transformation of the market economy in the 20th century is associated primarily with the strengthening of state regulation and the solution of many acute social and economic problems based on this regulation.

4. The next fundamental feature of the modern market economy was the transformation of economic relations:

Humanization of production (reduction of working hours; increase in real wages; state control over the regimes of work, rest and sanitary conditions, compliance with labor laws, etc.);

Strengthening the social protection of the population (pensions, compulsory health insurance, support for the unemployed and low-income, protection of childhood and motherhood, etc.), a developed system of public education and medical care;

Participation of workers in profits (“democratization of capital”) through the receipt of income from securities and bank deposits; stimulation of labor from the profits of enterprises, which creates the basis for the growth of the middle class - the class of owners.

All these changes become prerequisites for social stability in society and social partnership between labor and capital. And the more developed a society, the more opportunities it has to implement social programs and increase national welfare.

5. Important changes took place in the 20th century in the world economy: globalization, economic integration and the completion of the formation of a single world economy. New forms of world economic relations have become: international marketing, leasing and engineering, scientific and technical cooperation and financial interconnections have intensified in the modern world. The openness of national economies and their dependence on the economic processes taking place in the world have increased.

However, despite the strengthening of interrelations in the world economy, the uneven economic development of countries persists and intensifies (the world is divided into highly developed post-industrial countries, dynamically developing new industrial countries and underdeveloped countries). On the other hand, the phenomena of rivalry and competition in the world market do not disappear (three main centers of world rivalry have developed: the countries of the European community, the North American Union and the countries of the Asia-Pacific region).

The collapse of the colonial system ended in the 20th century, which led to profound changes both in the economy of the former colonies and their mother countries. The main result of decolonization for the Western world was economic integration and the transition to an intensive type of economy in the face of the loss of colonial sources of raw materials.

6. In the 20th century, global economic problems are exacerbated: environmental, associated with the negative consequences of human management on Earth; impoverishment of the animal and plant world; exhaustion of irreplaceable resources; problems of disarmament and conversion; fight against world terrorism; exploration of space and the oceans; problems of poverty and destitution in backward countries; the problem of infectious diseases, etc. These problems are of a global nature, since they concern all countries, and their solution is possible only on the basis of the combined efforts of all mankind.

In addition to the above features and trends, in the 20th century, such features of a market economy as monopolization (despite the active state antimonopoly regulation) and cyclicality in the development of the economy (periodic recessions and crises, despite the countercyclical policy being pursued) persist. These are the main features and trends in the economic development of countries in the 20th century.

There are several periods of economic development in the 20th century: the interwar period (1919 - 1939), the postwar period (1945 - the end of the 60s) and the modern period (the last third of the 20th - the beginning of the 21st century).

Aftermath of World War I and economic changes

during the interwar period

The increased uneven economic development of countries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to an intensification of the struggle between the leading countries for the redivision of the world - for colonies, sources of raw materials, markets, areas for capital investment. This struggle led to the First World War of 1914-1918. between the countries of the Entente (England, France, Russia and other countries) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria, etc.). It was precisely a world war, since 34 countries out of 56 countries of the world and 80 million people participated in it. The victory was won by the Entente, the outcome of the war was a foregone conclusion by the success of the British navy, which cut off Germany and its allies from sources of raw materials, and by the entry of the United States into the war in 1917.

The economic losses as a result of the war were enormous: a third of the material values ​​of mankind were destroyed, great damage was done to nature, huge irrational military spending was carried out (which increased 20 times over the years of the war), human casualties amounted to more than 10 million killed, 20 million disabled, another 10 million died of starvation and disease. 50% of the industry worked for the needs of the front, producing machine guns, tanks, aircraft, submarines, cannons, uniforms and ammunition. Only the USA and Japan emerged from the war enriched, their national wealth increased by 40% and 25% respectively, the USA concentrated half of the world's gold reserves.

As a result of the war, a profound restructuring of the economic and political systems of a number of countries took place: the collapse of the Russian, Turkish and Austro-Hungarian empires; bourgeois revolutions in Russia and Germany; the socialist revolution in Russia, which initiated the split of the world and the confrontation between the two systems; the beginning of the collapse of the colonial system. In the fight against socialism, two main trends have developed in the world: on the one hand, towards the democratization of public life and the humanization of production (USA, England, France), and on the other hand, towards totalitarianism and increased political reaction (Germany, Italy and Japan).

The main stages of the interwar economy:

1918 - 1924 - post-war restoration of the economy;

1925 - 1929 - recovery and recovery of the economy;

1929 - 1936 - the global economic crisis and the depression that followed;

1936 - 1939 - a new revival based on the military conjuncture.

The economic crisis of 1929 - 1933 became the main event of the world economy. It swept the whole world and became a severe shock to the market economy. It was a typical overproduction crisis caused by an imbalance in aggregate demand and aggregate supply. The problems were the same in all countries: overstocking, a deep decline in production, bankruptcies of enterprises, paralysis of the credit and banking system, mass unemployment and a sharp decline in the living standards of the population. Each country was looking for a way out of the crisis in its own way, the common thing was the strengthening of state regulation in order to revive the economy.

Germany. Germany was a country defeated in the First World War and suffered heavy human and material losses (2 million people died, 1.5 were injured, 1 million died as a result of famine and epidemics). The Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 put Germany, as a defeated country, in an extremely difficult situation: huge reparations (132 billion gold marks in goods and gold), territorial losses (Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, the Saar coal basin was transferred), the rejection of the colonies (with a population of 13 million people). The navy was liquidated, the land army and all types of weapons were reduced. Germany's military spending during the war years amounted to more than 150 billion marks. Economic chaos intensified in the country, there was a decline in production (up to 43%), unemployment reigned (it accounted for a quarter of the population), and the class struggle intensified.

In the 1920s, economic transformations were carried out aimed at stabilizing the economy: the anti-inflationary monetary reform of 1923, the modernization of obsolete equipment, the strengthening of German monopolies, and the intensification of exploitation. Fearing a revolutionary fire in the country, as well as being interested in restoring the military-political potential of Germany, global capital provides significant economic support (mitigation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty, revision of reparations, loans and foreign investment). The Dawes Plan was developed (for 1924-1929), aimed at supporting Germany, and then the Young Plan (from 1929 it was not implemented in the conditions of the crisis).

As a result, in the second half of the 1920s there is a revival of the German economy. The pre-war level of production was surpassed, its expansion began on a new technical basis (the electrical engineering industry and mechanical engineering developed especially rapidly). Labor productivity increased by 40%, in terms of production, Germany came in 2nd place in the world. The lost international positions of German finance capital were restored.

The economic crisis of 1929 - 1933 hard hit the German economy, barely recovering from the post-war recession. Production fell by almost 40%, 68 thousand enterprises collapsed, about 8 million people. (11% of the able-bodied population) became unemployed, the peasantry was ruined. The country has seen an increase in disease and suicide.

The way out of the crisis in Germany was based on the creation of a command-administrative economy and the centralization of management. In 1933, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler came to power, this was the collapse of the political system of the Weimar Republic and democracy in the country. Hitler was supported by the national and world bourgeoisie, which saw in militaristic Germany a shield against the strengthening of Soviet Russia. Thyssen, Flick, Krupp, Stinnes, Schroeder, Schacht and others financed the Nazi Party. A fascist dictatorship is being established, totalitarianism and political reaction are intensifying, Germany is preparing for a war for the “restoration of historical justice” and living space.

Ignoring the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Hitler begins open rearmament and military buildup. He relies on the militarization of the economy (military spending in 1933 - 1939 increased 25 times, their share in government spending increased from 26% to 76%), on self-sufficiency, centralized management and state control over pricing and distribution of all types of resources . Huge strategic reserves are being created by importing raw materials (including from Russia). Compulsory cartelization (monopolization) of the economy is being carried out, the state sector of the economy is growing, largely due to ariezatsiya (confiscation of property of non-Germans). State orders are expanding, primarily of a military nature. Formed state-monopoly capitalism of the Hitler type. Strikes, strikes, trade unions and workers' political parties are prohibited. “Order” and the most severe discipline are being introduced in the country.

Economic growth in Germany, which began in the second half of the 1930s, is connected to a large extent with preparations for war and the strengthening of the military-industrial complex. Germany becomes a powerful military power.

USA. The United States was the leading state in the world and the most economically prosperous country (since the end of the 18th century, economic growth has not stopped here). The global economic crisis hit the US economy particularly hard. It occurred after a long era of prosperity and became a moral catastrophe, destroyed the Americans' faith in their eternal prosperity (psychology of "prosperity").

The pre-crisis period was associated with an unprecedented "overheating" of the economy and the growth of speculative capital. The crisis began with a panic on the New York Stock Exchange, quickly swept through all industries and spread across the Atlantic. It was a typical crisis of overproduction. A wave of ruins and bankruptcies swept across the country. Production fell by 46% and was set back 20 years to 1911 levels. The situation of the workers has deteriorated sharply. There was a huge number of unemployed people in the country: about half of the able-bodied population (in 1931, 2 million people died of starvation in New York alone). The situation of farmers was especially difficult.

In 1929 G. Hoover becomes president. He relied on traditional American individualism and economic liberalism (the hope that the market would regulate everything itself), but the economy plunged even more into crisis. In 1932, at the height of the crisis, F. D. Roosevelt, one of America's greatest politicians, came to power. He proclaims the "New Deal": an economic policy based on class peace and good neighborliness, on state regulation based on Keynesian recipes.

J. M. Keynes, the great English economist, believed that during the economic crisis, it is necessary to stimulate not aggregate supply (production), but aggregate demand (the consumption capacity of the nation). He not only substantiated the need for strong state regulation of the economy, but also showed its specific levers: financial and monetary policy. Keynes visited the United States, talked with Roosevelt, explained to him his mechanism for regulating the economy. The entire program for overcoming the crisis, which was implemented by F.D. Roosevelt, was the implementation of Keynesian ideas.

Roosevelt began his way out of the crisis by bailing out the banking system. Banks were closed and “bank holidays” were announced, then the banking system was restructured (a significant part of the banks were declared unviable and liquidated); the Federal Reserve System was created - an analogue of the central bank - to regulate the banking system; state deposit insurance was introduced, which restored depositors' confidence in the banking system; gold was withdrawn from circulation and its export abroad was prohibited; gold reserves were concentrated in the Treasury; the devaluation of the dollar was carried out, which increased the competitiveness of American products in the world market.

The second component of Roosevelt's program was the restoration of industry. Ball adopted the Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), the "Code of Fair Competition and Employment", which limited competition and regulated the relationship of labor and capital. Government-funded public works were deployed to reduce unemployment and stimulate public demand. The industry was supported by government subsidies, tax cuts and bank interest cuts to revitalize investment policy. There was forced cartelization.

The third component of the way out of the crisis was related to assistance to agriculture. The Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) was passed: purchase prices for agricultural products were raised, production was stimulated to reduce production to balance supply and demand. Farmers received credit support and repayment of their debts to banks at the expense of the state. The concentration of land and agricultural production was carried out.

In 1935 there was a turn of state policy to the left, towards the working people. The Wagner Law was adopted - trade unions and workers' parties were legalized, labor legislation, the Law on Social Security, the Law on Fair Working Conditions were adopted (state control over working conditions and wages begins to be carried out).

Thus, the way out of the US crisis was connected with the efforts of state regulation of the economy, with the policy of liberal reformism.

Great Britain. Here the crisis was not as severe as in Germany and the US, and yet the economy was destabilized. The decline in production occurred by 18%, especially in old industries, trade was halved, unemployment was rampant (it was 30-35%), and the financial system was paralyzed. Decisive measures were needed to stabilize the economy.

In 1931, a commission was set up under the leadership of the banker J. May, which was called upon to analyze the economic situation and make recommendations to the government. The commission draws disappointing conclusions about the state of the economy and financial system in the country. This was a blow to the Labor government, the Conservatives come to power and a program is being launched to improve the economy.

The government's main focus is on financial stabilization. A strict budget is being adopted, a plan for state savings and rationalization of budget expenditures is being implemented (moreover, British officials not only cut social programs, but also limit funding for the state apparatus and law enforcement agencies). The tax pressure is getting tougher. Measures are being taken to strengthen the monetary system (the gold standard has been abolished, the pound sterling has been devalued, which leads to price advantages for sterling goods on world markets). Confidence in the pound is being restored, deposits in British banks are being returned. A policy of trade protectionism is being introduced (after two centuries of free trade), customs duties on imported goods are being raised, and the country's balance of payments is improving.

All these measures have a stabilizing effect, already in 1932 the financial crisis passed, and in 1934 the British economy began to recover.

France. A feature of the stabilization in France was the broad democratization of public life and the humanization of production.

In France, in the early 30s, the influence of the fascist party was increasing, but the nation was able to unite in the fight against the threat of fascism by creating the Popular Front - the government of the united left forces (workers', petty bourgeois, peasant parties).

The government of the Popular Front under the leadership of the socialist L. Blum was in power in 1936-1938. During this relatively short period of time, a lot has been done to improve the condition of the working people. An agreement was reached between the union of employers and the General Confederation of Labor on the recognition of trade unions, wage increases, improvement of working conditions (40-hour work week, paid holidays, collective bargaining) - the so-called "Matignon agreements". These agreements were legislated by a decision of Parliament. The activities of the Popular Front have shown the effectiveness of the joint efforts of the state and society.

The government of the Popular Front pursued a policy of active state regulation of the economy: antimonopoly regulation, partial nationalization of the economy, a policy of income regulation and harmonization of economic relations in the interests of society.

This policy met with fierce resistance from the big bourgeoisie. It begins its sabotage, lockouts, capital outflow abroad. Broad social programs put a burden on the state budget, its deficit grows, and inflation increases. A government crisis begins, a compromise between the interests of the broad masses and the big bourgeoisie was not found. There is a split within the Popular Front itself, and the orientation of economic policy towards the interests of big business is increasing. In 1938, the government of L. Blum resigns, it is replaced by the government of the right-wing radical F. Daladier, the policy of the Popular Front is curtailed, political reaction is intensifying, the country is preparing for war.

Thus, different countries demonstrate different ways out of the economic crisis and national revival: the liberal reformist path in the USA and Great Britain, broad democratization and socialization in France and Spain, totalitarian dictatorial regime and the creation of an administrative-command economy in Germany, Italy, and Japan.

Economic consequences of the Second World War and the post-war economy of the leading countries.

World War II (1939 - 1945) ends with the defeat of Germany and its bloc. Despite the fact that the whole of occupied Europe worked for Germany, its economy was exhausted by the war. The Anglo-American fleet blocked the supply of raw materials to Germany. The combined military and economic potential of the allies (the USSR, England and the USA) was higher than the German one. Germany did not manage to avoid a protracted war on two fronts. In addition, an occupation regime has developed in the occupied territories, which has caused hatred for the invaders and stubborn resistance from the civilian population.

The war had the character of a world war, since 60 countries with a population of 4/5 of all the inhabitants of the planet took part in it; military actions took place on the territory of 40 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa and in the equator of the oceans; 110 million people were drafted into the army.

The consequences of the war were catastrophic for the vanquished and very difficult for the victors: huge human losses (more than 55 million people), destroyed national wealth (approximately $ 316 billion), huge military spending (about $ 962 billion - in 4 .5 times larger than during the First World War). All countries emerged from the war with soaring public debts, warped militarized economies, budget deficits, a decline in civilian production, worn-out equipment, severed economic ties, a collapsed domestic and foreign trade system, inflation, and shortages of essential commodities. Many countries have suffered because of the bombing and hostilities on their territory.

As a result of the war, the economic power of only the United States was strengthened: industrial production increased by 2 times, industrial profit - by 5 times, the country concentrated 2/3 of the world's gold reserves (in particular, as a result of US lend-lease assistance, Britain's external debt increased by 8 once).

As a result of the war, profound socio-economic and political changes took place in Europe and throughout the world: in the 40s - 50s. a world system of socialism is being formed and is growing (it includes Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Romania, the German Democratic Republic, Czechoslovakia in Europe, the People's Republic of China, the Korean People's Democratic Republic and Vietnam in Asia, Cuba in America). To a large extent, under the influence of world socialism, the collapse of the colonial system is being completed.

As a result of the formation of the world system of socialism, the confrontation between the two socio-economic systems intensifies, and the long years of the Cold War begin, the main meaning of which was the arms race. Military-political blocs of two systems are being formed (Warsaw and North Atlantic - NATO).

The post-war economy went through several stages in its development:

1. The second half of the 40s - post-war economic recovery;

2. 50 - 60s - economic recovery based on strong state regulation and development of scientific and technological revolution;

3. 70 - 90 years. - the modern stage in the development of the economy, associated with its liberalization.

The post-war recovery of the economy took 5-6 years. The implementation of the Marshall Plan1 (1948-1951) played a significant role in the post-war revival of many countries. It was a program of economic cooperation and assistance to 16 European countries from the United States in the amount of approximately 13 billion dollars: fuel, food, raw materials, equipment (England, France, Germany and Italy received the main share of assistance) 2 .

In June 1947 the Committee for European Economic Cooperation was established to prepare a consolidated request for American aid, and in April 1948 the US Congress passed the Aid Act. It was partly gratuitous in nature, partly financed by banks on a loan basis under state guarantees. In addition, favorable conditions were created for the revival of the economies of the destroyed countries - currency, trade, financial. The importance of this assistance for the economic revival of Europe can hardly be overestimated. But with the aggravation of the international situation, with the intensification of the Cold War, economic aid was increasingly transformed into military aid. The political and economic dependence of European countries on the United States increased (economic assistance was provided on the condition that American military bases were established on the territory of the respective countries, their participation in military-political alliances, discrimination in trade with socialist countries, etc.).

By the beginning of the 50s. the wounds of the war were basically healed, the pre-war level of development of production was reached. The per capita production of coal, steel, electricity exceeded the level of 1938, the energy sector recovered especially quickly

From the beginning of the 1950s, a new economic upsurge began. A new technological modernization is being carried out, new industries are emerging (electronics, jet transport, modern automotive industry, housing construction based on new technologies, etc.), a “post-industrial” or “information” society is emerging. Space exploration begins, the use of high technologies, the widespread computerization of society. The structure of production is being improved, the sphere of services, science and education is expanding. As a result of the collapse of the colonial system and the loss of powerful sources of raw materials, Western countries are betting on the intensification of production and economic growth based on scientific and technical progress.

Feature of the economy 50-60-ies. became a strong government regulation based on Keynesian ideas. In all countries, the share of state property is expanding, state investments in the economy are growing (in England, enterprises of the coal industry, metallurgy, electric power industry, partially electrical and automotive enterprises, banks are nationalized. In France - coal, gas, aviation, automobile, partially - oil refining and defense industry, rail transport and banks). State forecasting and programming of the economy is being carried out for the purpose of economic stabilization and smoothing of the economic cycle. Financial and monetary policy instruments are actively used to stimulate economic growth. Profound changes are taking place in the economic relations of society (separation of property from management, democratization of capital, humanization of production, etc.)

In the 80-90s of the 19th century (just after the democratic reforms, the assassination of Alexander II and the launch of counter-reforms), the empire's economy experienced a period of growth. Capitalism began to take shape. Cities and villages began to affect modernization process carried out comprehensive reforms. The rapid economic development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century resulted, in particular, from these two decades.

In contact with

Early 20th century modernization

In the economy of our country in the initial period of the last century, the following were noted:

• business development;
• increase in capital (internal, external) included in the economy;
• an increase in the number of hired forces at enterprises of various types.

In just two decades, the empire turned from an agrarian into an agrarian-industrial state (still more than 80% of the population was involved in the agricultural industry).

This is the main feature of Russian modernization - its accelerated course. Russian capitalism developed at the highest rates.

The path that England has traveled for several centuries, Russia "ran" for several decades. According to the main indicators, the country was gradually catching up with such economic leaders as England, Germany, France and, taking a tight place in the 2nd echelon of modernization.

Attention! Political scientists, sociologists and economists distinguish the following echelons of economic modernization: the first (completion of the stage of formation of the capitalist system) - the British Empire, the United States of America, Germany, the French Republic; the second (states of developing capitalism) - the Russian Empire, Austria-Hungary, Japan; the third (weak growth of capitalism) - the states of Latin America.

The cyclical nature of the economy

Our state, integrating into the world economy, adopted its characteristic cyclicality (a feature of Russian modernization at the beginning of the century). Periods decline and rise economy of the first years of the century can be represented as follows (table):

The economy began to respond to all political processes taking place in the world: wars, revolutions, changes of governments and rulers.

monopoly capitalism

In the Russian economic system of the first decades of the 20th century (following other countries), monopoly capitalism began to take shape.

It was a special phenomenon, as a result of which the central white global conglomerate leading industry and banking associations.

These trends occurred around the world, but with different time intervals. Depending on the mentality of peoples, historically established cultural values, and so on.

Signs and features

The characteristics of monopoly capitalism are:

• the formation of large industrial groups - monopolies;
• dominance of money export over commodity(opportunities to attract cheap labor, cheap raw materials in third world countries and colonies);
• economic redistribution (territorial division) of the world between the largest monopolies (Russian companies took an active part in this redistribution, which rather resembled political, colonial expansion);
• bitterness of colonial wars;
• the formation of imperialism.

Businessmen began to actively influence foreign policy, defending their own commercial interests.

The Russian economy also had special characteristics of this type capitalist relations:

1. It was formed against the backdrop of the preservation of autocratic power and landlordism, class inequality and the absence of social rights.
2. The Russian Empire was a huge multinational power, where different regions and different peoples existed in different socio-economic conditions.
3. Capitalist monopolism was formed in a special order solely because the Russian Empire made the transition to the capitalist system later than a number of other European states.

Stages of formation

The formation of monopoly capitalism in the Russian state is divided into 3 main stages:

• 1880-90s - the appearance of first cartels who agreed on sales markets and prices;
• 1900-08 - the emergence of syndicates, banking monopolies, the beginning of the merging of industrial and banking capital;
• 1909-13 – formation of syndicates, financial capital.

Forms of monopolies

There were two main forms of monopolies in the economy of the Russian Empire:

• marketing - cartels and syndicates;
• production - trusts and concerns.

The fundamental differences between different forms of monopolies from each other and the periods of their formation in the Russian Empire are presented in the table:

Industry development

Russian industry of the early 20th century went through a period of transformation. new branches of production appeared, the achievements of technology and science began to be used.

Russian industry in this period of time was formed and developed with the active participation of foreign and state capital.

Agricultural development

Despite the accelerated pace of industrial development, Russia remained an agrarian country. But despite the fact that it was the leader in the export of agricultural products, the situation in this sector of the economy was quite difficult:

• grain specialization led to agrarian overpopulation and depletion of the lands of the South and South-East of Russia;
• in the main, the farms were low-power (this also applied to peasant and landowner farms);
• non-use of technology led to frequent crop failures and famine;
• in the countryside, semi-serfdom patriarchal remnants were preserved, modernization in this sector was very slow.

In addition, Russia is in the zone of “risk farming”. Due to climatic conditions (floods, drought, frosts), crop failures often occurred.

Important! During this period, the United States, Latin American countries and Australia began to compete in the world agricultural market of the Russian Empire.

Reforms of P. A. Stolypin

The reforms of P. A. Stolypin, carried out by him in 1906-1910, were aimed at accelerating the modernization processes in agriculture. For these reforms:

• peasants received the right to leave the community;
• peasants could get a loan from the Peasants' Bank for the development of the economy;
• the state provided assistance to peasants who wanted to move for.

All these measures led to the accelerated development agriculture and increase the profitability of agriculture, its marketability and

connections with, but they did not remove the social tension that existed in the Russian village.

The fact is that Stolypin did not dare to take the most important step - the elimination of landlord landownership, which would lead to land

redistribution and would solve the problem of small land of peasant farms. In this way, he would get rid of the strong class inequality and spur the economy.

Transport

In Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the transport system did not undergo significant changes. The leading role in the transportation of goods and logistics was played by railways, as well as water communications (there were many private shipping companies in Russia). Highway roads there were very few. Equipped tracts were laid between the cities.

Financial system

The Russian financial system of the early 20th century was dominated by public and private capital:

The Russian financial system of the early 20th century was not in the best condition. First, the international crisis of 1900-1903 had a serious impact on it. Secondly, and the revolution of 1905-1907. actually emptied the Russian treasury. Thirdly, the constant appeal to foreign capital has led to an increase in public debt.

Reforms of S. Yu. Witte

The reforms of the Minister of the Interior S. Yu. Witte were an attempt stabilize the financial system. He carried out a whole range of measures aimed at improving the economy:

• regulation of the tariff system;
• reorganization of the taxation system;
• state regulation of foreign and domestic trade (protectionism);
• the revitalization of the State Bank and the monetary reform of 1897, aimed at strengthening the national currency;
• fighting the budget deficit.

In general, the reforms were positive, but S. Yu. Witte was not allowed to complete them, blocking his agrarian program.

Features of economic development

Thus, the Russian economy of the early 20th century was characterized by (it was characterized by):

• a combination of a developed industrial and financial system with a backward agrarian one;
• the weakness of the bourgeoisie, which had just begun to take shape under conditions of social inequality;
• high concentration of foreign capital with low domestic exports.

Briefly about the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century

The development of the Russian economy in the 20th century

Conclusion

On the one hand, the Russian economy rapidly evolved and developed, on the other hand, autocracy, landlordism, remnants of serfdom and social inequality hampered modernization processes. But, in any case, during this period, the level of Russia's economic development has increased and its lagging behind the leading capitalist powers decreased significantly.