Aug 31 2014

Philosophy of the history of Tolstoy. Philosophy of history - views on the origin, essence and change of historical events. The main provisions of Tolstoy's philosophy of history 1. believes that it is impossible to explain the origin of historical events by individual actions of individual people. The will of an individual historical person can be paralyzed by the desires or not the desires of a mass of people.

2. For a historical event to take place, billions of reasons must coincide, i.e., the interests of individual people who make up the mass of the people, just as the movement of a swarm of bees coincides when a general movement is born from the movement of individual quantities. This means that history is made not by individuals, but by their totality, the people. 3. Why do the infinitesimal values ​​of human desires coincide? Tolstoy was unable to answer this question.

“The event had to take place only because it had to take place,” writes Tolstoy. Fatalism in history, in his opinion, is inevitable. 4. T. correctly believes that.

and even the historical does not play a leading role in history, that it is connected with the interests of all who stand below it and next to it. 5. T. incorrectly asserts that the individual does not and cannot play any role in history. "The Tsar is the slave of history," says Tolstoy. So T. comes to the idea of ​​humility before fate and sees the task of a historical personality in following events. to the essay "Tolstoy's Image of the Great Patriotic War of 1812" I. Introduction.

The image of the war of 1812 is the main one in T.'s novel "B and M". II. Main part 1. What is from the point of view of the history of Tolstoy's philosophy. 2. T.'s attitude to war, revealed by various methods: A) through the thoughts of beloved heroes B) by comparing the clear harmonious life of nature and the madness of people killing each other C) through the description of individual combat episodes 3. The variety of forms of struggle against Napoleon put forward by the people: A) patriotic copying is prohibited 2005 inspiration in the troops and among the civilian population B) the scope and greatness of the partisan war 4. The people in the war of 1812: A) true, unostentatious love for the motherland, hidden warmth of patriotism; B) fortitude in battle, selfless heroism, courage, endurance; C) a deep conviction in the rightness of their cause 5. Indifference to the fate of the country and the people on the part of secular circles: a) the noisy "patriotism" of Rastopgin's posters; b) false patriotism of St. Petersburg salons c) careerism, selfishness, vanity of some military men 6. Participation in the war of the main characters. The place they found in life, as a result of the war. 7. The role of generals in war III. Conclusion 1. The death of Napoleon's army as a result of the nationwide rise. 2. Triumph of the world over

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is a great Russian writer, by origin - a count from a famous noble family. He was born on August 28, 1828 in the Yasnaya Polyana estate located in the Tula province, and died on October 7, 1910 at the Astapovo station.

Writer's childhood

Lev Nikolaevich was a representative of a large noble family, the fourth child in it. His mother, Princess Volkonskaya, died early. At this time, Tolstoy was not yet two years old, but he formed an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis parent from the stories of various family members. In the novel "War and Peace" the image of the mother is represented by Princess Marya Nikolaevna Bolkonskaya.

Biography of Leo Tolstoy in the early years is marked by another death. Because of her, the boy was left an orphan. The father of Leo Tolstoy, a participant in the war of 1812, like his mother, died early. This happened in 1837. At that time the boy was only nine years old. The brothers of Leo Tolstoy, he and his sister were transferred to the upbringing of T. A. Ergolskaya, a distant relative who had a huge influence on the future writer. Childhood memories have always been the happiest for Lev Nikolayevich: family traditions and impressions from life in the estate became rich material for his works, reflected, in particular, in the autobiographical story "Childhood".

Studying at Kazan University

The biography of Leo Tolstoy in his youth was marked by such an important event as studying at the university. When the future writer was thirteen years old, his family moved to Kazan, to the house of the children's guardian, a relative of Lev Nikolaevich P.I. Yushkova. In 1844, the future writer was enrolled in the Faculty of Philosophy of Kazan University, after which he transferred to the Faculty of Law, where he studied for about two years: the young man did not arouse keen interest in studying, so he indulged in various secular entertainments with passion. Having filed a letter of resignation in the spring of 1847, due to poor health and "domestic circumstances", Lev Nikolayevich left for Yasnaya Polyana with the intention of studying the full course of legal sciences and passing an external exam, as well as learning languages, "practical medicine", history, rural economy, geographical statistics, painting, music and writing a dissertation.

Youth years

In the autumn of 1847, Tolstoy left for Moscow, and then for St. Petersburg in order to pass the candidate's exams at the university. During this period, his lifestyle often changed: he studied various subjects all day long, then he devoted himself to music, but wanted to start a career as an official, then he dreamed of becoming a cadet in a regiment. Religious moods that reached asceticism alternated with cards, carousing, trips to the gypsies. The biography of Leo Tolstoy in his youth is colored by the struggle with himself and introspection, reflected in the diary that the writer kept throughout his life. In the same period, interest in literature arose, the first artistic sketches appeared.

Participation in the war

In 1851, Nikolai, the elder brother of Lev Nikolaevich, an officer, persuaded Tolstoy to go to the Caucasus with him. Lev Nikolaevich lived for almost three years on the banks of the Terek, in a Cossack village, leaving for Vladikavkaz, Tiflis, Kizlyar, participating in hostilities (as a volunteer, and then was hired). The patriarchal simplicity of the life of the Cossacks and the Caucasian nature struck the writer with their contrast with the painful reflection of the representatives of an educated society and the life of the noble circle, gave extensive material for the story "Cossacks", written in the period from 1852 to 1863 on autobiographical material. The stories "Raid" (1853) and "Cutting down the forest" (1855) also reflected his Caucasian impressions. They left a mark in his story "Hadji Murad", written in the period from 1896 to 1904, published in 1912.

Returning to his homeland, Lev Nikolaevich wrote in his diary that he fell in love with this wild land, in which "war and freedom" are combined, things that are so opposite in their essence. Tolstoy in the Caucasus began to create his story "Childhood" and anonymously sent it to the journal "Contemporary". This work appeared on its pages in 1852 under the initials L. N. and, along with the later "Boyhood" (1852-1854) and "Youth" (1855-1857), made up the famous autobiographical trilogy. The creative debut immediately brought real recognition to Tolstoy.

Crimean campaign

In 1854, the writer went to Bucharest, to the Danube army, where the work and biography of Leo Tolstoy were further developed. However, soon a boring staff life forced him to transfer to the besieged Sevastopol, to the Crimean army, where he was a battery commander, having shown courage (he was awarded medals and the Order of St. Anna). Lev Nikolaevich during this period was captured by new literary plans and impressions. He began to write "Sevastopol stories", which were a great success. Some of the ideas that arose even at that time make it possible to guess in the artillery officer Tolstoy the preacher of later years: he dreamed of a new "religion of Christ", cleansed of mystery and faith, a "practical religion".

Petersburg and abroad

Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich arrived in St. Petersburg in November 1855 and immediately became a member of the Sovremennik circle (which included N. A. Nekrasov, A. N. Ostrovsky, I. S. Turgenev, I. A. Goncharov and others). He took part in the creation of the Literary Fund at that time, and at the same time became involved in the conflicts and disputes of writers, but he felt like a stranger in this environment, which he conveyed in "Confession" (1879-1882). Having retired, in the autumn of 1856 the writer left for Yasnaya Polyana, and then, at the beginning of the next, in 1857, he went abroad, visiting Italy, France, Switzerland (impressions from visiting this country are described in the story "Lucerne"), and also visited Germany. In the same year, in the autumn, Tolstoy Lev Nikolaevich returned first to Moscow, and then to Yasnaya Polyana.

Opening of a public school

Tolstoy in 1859 opened a school for the children of peasants in the village, and also helped set up more than twenty such educational institutions in the Krasnaya Polyana region. In order to get acquainted with the European experience in this area and apply it in practice, the writer Leo Tolstoy again went abroad, visited London (where he met with A. I. Herzen), Germany, Switzerland, France, Belgium. However, European schools somewhat disappoint him, and he decides to create his own pedagogical system based on the freedom of the individual, publishes teaching aids and works on pedagogy, and puts them into practice.

"War and Peace"

In September 1862, Lev Nikolaevich married Sofya Andreevna Bers, the 18-year-old daughter of a doctor, and immediately after the wedding he left Moscow for Yasnaya Polyana, where he devoted himself entirely to household chores and family life. However, already in 1863, he was again captured by a literary plan, this time creating a novel about the war, which was supposed to reflect Russian history. Leo Tolstoy was interested in the period of our country's struggle with Napoleon in the early 19th century.

In 1865, the first part of the work "War and Peace" was published in the Russian Messenger. The novel immediately drew a lot of responses. The subsequent parts provoked heated debates, in particular, the fatalistic philosophy of history developed by Tolstoy.

"Anna Karenina"

This work was created in the period from 1873 to 1877. Living in Yasnaya Polyana, continuing to teach peasant children and publish his pedagogical views, in the 70s Lev Nikolayevich worked on a work about the life of contemporary high society, building his novel on the contrast of two storylines: Anna Karenina's family drama and Konstantin Levin's home idyll , close both in psychological drawing, and in convictions, and in the way of life to the writer himself.

Tolstoy strove for an outward nonjudgmental tone of his work, thereby paving the way for a new style of the 80s, in particular, folk stories. The truth of peasant life and the meaning of the existence of representatives of the "educated class" - this is the circle of questions that interested the writer. "Family thought" (according to Tolstoy, the main one in the novel) is translated into a social channel in his creation, and Levin's self-exposures, numerous and merciless, his thoughts about suicide are an illustration of the author's spiritual crisis experienced in the 1880s, which matured while working on it. novel.

1880s

In the 1880s, the work of Leo Tolstoy underwent a transformation. The upheaval in the mind of the writer was also reflected in his works, primarily in the experiences of the characters, in that spiritual insight that changes their lives. Such heroes occupy a central place in such works as "The Death of Ivan Ilyich" (years of creation - 1884-1886), "Kreutzer Sonata" (a story written in 1887-1889), "Father Sergius" (1890-1898), drama "The Living Corpse" (left unfinished, begun in 1900), as well as the story "After the Ball" (1903).

Publicism of Tolstoy

Tolstoy's journalism reflects his spiritual drama: depicting pictures of the idleness of the intelligentsia and social inequality, Lev Nikolayevich posed questions of faith and life to society and himself, criticized the institutions of the state, reaching the denial of art, science, marriage, court, achievements of civilization.

The new worldview is presented in "Confession" (1884), in the articles "So what shall we do?", "On the famine", "What is art?", "I can't be silent" and others. The ethical ideas of Christianity are understood in these works as the foundation of the brotherhood of man.

Within the framework of the new worldview and humanistic idea of ​​the teachings of Christ, Lev Nikolayevich spoke out, in particular, against the dogma of the church and criticized its rapprochement with the state, which led to the fact that he was officially excommunicated from the church in 1901. This caused a huge uproar.

Novel "Sunday"

Tolstoy wrote his last novel between 1889 and 1899. It embodies the whole range of problems that worried the writer during the years of the spiritual turning point. Dmitry Nekhlyudov, the main character, is a person who is internally close to Tolstoy, who goes through the path of moral purification in the work, eventually leading him to comprehend the need for active goodness. The novel is built on a system of evaluative oppositions that reveal the unreasonableness of the structure of society (the falsity of the social world and the beauty of nature, the falsity of the educated population and the truth of the peasant world).

last years of life

The life of Leo Tolstoy in recent years was not easy. The spiritual break turned into a break with his environment and family discord. The refusal to own private property, for example, caused dissatisfaction among the writer's family members, especially his wife. The personal drama experienced by Lev Nikolayevich was reflected in his diary entries.

In the autumn of 1910, at night, secretly from everyone, 82-year-old Leo Tolstoy, whose dates of life were presented in this article, accompanied only by his attending physician D.P. Makovitsky, left the estate. The journey turned out to be unbearable for him: on the way, the writer fell ill and was forced to disembark at the Astapovo railway station. In the house that belonged to her boss, Lev Nikolaevich spent the last week of his life. Reports about his health at that time were followed by the whole country. Tolstoy was buried in Yasnaya Polyana, his death caused a huge public outcry.

Many contemporaries arrived to say goodbye to this great Russian writer.

Galina CHERNIKH,
Lyceum No. 1535, Moscow

Philosophy of history in the novel
L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace"

FROM The modern school is focused on the implementation of an individual approach to the student. The focus on student-centered learning has become a commonplace in the conversation about the ways of developing Russian education. The ways of implementing this principle are diverse: these are the latest technologies, and specific organizational forms (lecture and seminar system, lectures for a stream, group classes of choice).

The educational model of the Oriental Lyceum No. 1535 of the city of Moscow includes a lecture and seminar system of classes for specialized subjects. Given the specifics of teaching children at school, it does not repeat the university form. A lesson with the whole class (lecture) is built according to the traditional school methodology, and seminars involve organizing work in a small group (half of the class).

It is known that a seminar is a type of training session in which students discuss their reports and reports prepared by them under the guidance of a teacher. However, this general definition does not reflect the originality of a school-type seminar, the content of which can be very diverse: a test on a topic or block of topics, a survey of students on the material studied. In some cases, a seminar may precede a lecture, if some aspects of the problem posed are studied ahead of time in laboratory conditions. Recently, seminars in the form of a business game with elements of dramatization, using the methods of conducting a lesson-discussion, have been introduced into the practice of the lyceum.

While working on these new forms, lyceum teachers cannot but take into account the specifics of humanitarian knowledge: a large amount of factual material, linear methods of presentation. As practice has shown, the studied material is often presented in an insufficiently structured form. This is reflected both in the method of presentation, which is adopted in textbooks, and in the work of the teacher in the classroom.

To teach how to logically build an answer for a specific topic, to create your own holistic concept of presenting the studied material - this is one of the most important learning tasks facing lyceum teachers, including a teacher of literature. However, it can be solved only by specially working on the methodology, allocating special time for the formation of this skill. Reflections on the possibilities of the seminar form of employment allow us to reach the solution of these problems.

The purpose of this article is to acquaint the reader with the methodology developed at the Lyceum using a specific example: a seminar on the topic “Philosophy of History in the Novel by L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace". The proposed topic of the lesson is the most difficult in the system of lessons on the work of L.N. Tolstoy. It assumes not only a good knowledge of the text of the epic novel, but also a high level of generalization of what has been studied.

The presented version of the consideration of this topic by no means claims to be an exhaustive study of the problem. The system of philosophical views of Tolstoy, embodied in the novel "War and Peace", is so deep and multifaceted that it is not possible to consider it in detail at one school seminar.

Leaving many layers of the novel out of the scope of the study, let us dwell on the most obvious aspects of the analysis of this topic as it has developed in the practice of school teaching.

The proposed version of the seminar, we think, can help students to better understand the philosophical concept of Tolstoy, the features of his poetics. Conducting a seminar, the purpose of which is to teach the ability to structure a response, is a difficult job. At such a lesson, it is necessary to preserve the traditional orientation for literature lessons on the creative activity of students, and, comprehending the work from the perspective of problems, solve the problem of structuring the acquired knowledge.

Before proceeding with the preparation of a school seminar, it is necessary to remember the features of this educational form. In such a lesson, the teacher must observe the principle of the feasibility of the task, give an orientation to maximum activity. The content of the seminar should contain both established points of view and those independently developed by students as a result of research and search activities.

For the lesson, the teacher compiles a list of reference points that lead to the historical and philosophical concept of L.N. Tolstoy. Questions with detente are printed on unfolded sheets in the same way as is done in workbooks that have become widespread (materials are distributed to students before the lesson). At the seminar, as the problems are discussed, the guys fill out their worksheets with answers to the questions posed, and the teacher fixes the logic and content of the answers on the board in the form of a reference note. We stipulate that the seminar is divided into two subgroups, each of which receives the same task (worksheets). Each group selects a “rapporteur” and two “stenographers”. (One “stenographer” takes notes for the speaker, the other for passing information to the teacher. The worksheet is necessary for the teacher when grading.) After the organizational moment, the groups are given 15 minutes to search for answers and write them down in the worksheets. After the allotted time has elapsed, the “rapporteur” of one of the groups takes the floor, the second speaker has the right to supplement those answers that, in the opinion of his group, are not exhaustive. Recall that the role of the teacher is to fix the main provisions on the board in the form of a supporting abstract. Students do similar work on the second part of their sheet.

And The results of the seminar are summed up in the next lesson after the teacher has reviewed the worksheets handed over to him. This allows you to evaluate the progress of the work of the entire group, the contribution of each participant in the seminar.

Several remarks should be made on the work of the group during the discussion of the answers to the questions posed. During the time allotted to them, students must formulate theses and select examples from the text for them. At the same time, the teacher, if necessary, creates a clearer motivation for the activities of schoolchildren, warns the participants of the seminar that the answer will be more valuable if, during the discussion, the members of the seminar group discover new facets of the problem and are able to substantiate this with specific facts from the text of the novel. Here is one example of this potential. L.N. Tolstoy, explaining the laws of the historical process, created a metaphor: the “swarm” movement of the masses. Students can come to such aspects of the problem: the people as the basis of national unity and the people as an aggressive crowd, devoid of spirituality.

Many years of lyceum practice has shown the expediency of holding such a seminar before the teacher's lecture. Active development of the most complex philosophical layer of the novel at the seminar allows students to better perceive the theoretical material of the next lesson.

The proposed experience is not a specific recipe, but only indicates possible ways for the development of a modern lesson. It is known that the school today must implement an activity approach, stimulate the independence of mastering the material being studied, form a creative personality, while not missing work on a culture of thinking.

The lecture-seminar system, which has been worked out in Lyceum No. 1535, makes it possible to clarify real approaches to the implementation of these tasks.

Materials for the seminar

1. Why L.N. Did Tolstoy value the antithesis of “war” and “peace”, putting it in the title of the novel?

The world of human life is presented in the epic novel by L.N. Tolstoy in the complex interweaving and interaction of pictures of war and peace, creation and destruction, harmony and disharmony in various manifestations. The ambiguity of the words “war” and “peace” allows us to assert that they are not only the theme of the novel, but also its artistic idea. The harmony of human relations is opposed in the novel to any destructive struggle. And these are not only military episodes (Schengraben, Austerlitz, Borodino), but also pictures of peaceful life associated with them by association, where there is a place for selfish calculation, self-interest, enmity (the struggle for a mosaic portfolio, Helen's desire to marry Pierre, the falsity of secular relations in the salon of A.P. Sherer, the careerism of Drubetsky, Nesvitsky, Zherkov and others). At the opposite pole - love and mutual understanding (the Rostov family), fidelity to noble duty, respect for each other (Bolkonsky), the desire to find the truth (the episode of the dispute on the ferry in Bogucharov) and others. According to L.N. Tolstoy, the movement of life is due to the opposition and confrontation of the two polar principles of being.

2. What is the meaning of human life?

In a person's search for his destiny, in finding the business where his personality is most fully and harmoniously revealed - the meaning of earthly existence. All of Tolstoy's favorite heroes are in a state of spiritual quest.

According to the writer-philosopher, the civil purpose of a woman is to be a mother, in the sphere of family relations to be the spiritual support of her husband, whose moral efforts are naturally aimed at improving social relations and spiritual search.

3. Why does the writer pay special attention to the family and family relationships?

The family in the system of philosophical views of Tolstoy is the basis of life, its moral soil. This can be confirmed by a detailed story about the Rostov family, whose representatives are close to the ideal of Tolstoy, wise, according to A.A. Feta, "with the mind of the heart." The Bolkonsky family is consistently opposed to it, the members of which have other personality traits: they rather live “with the mind of the mind”. The epilogue of the epic novel shows the ideal family of Natasha and Pierre, raising their son A. Bolkonsky. Under the roof of the Lysogorsky house, Nikolenka has the opportunity to take the best from the “breed” of the Rostovs and Bolkonskys, and through Pierre to comprehend the wisdom of Platon Karataev.

4. Why is earthly life presented by Tolstoy as the movement of two unequal streams?

In the view of L.N. Tolstoy, the historical process is the movement of two unequal streams, one of which is “historical life” (the main milestones of the era and historical figures), the second stream is “human life”, that is, the life of the people, which is composed of specific private destinies.

5. Why does Tolstoy affirm the priority of “human life” over “historical life”?

According to Tolstoy, the historical process is the movement of "swarm history", that is, the movement of any historical event is possible only when the efforts of the wills of all people, of the whole people, coincide. “At the same time, the real life of people with their essential interests of health, illness, work, rest ... love, friendship, hatred ... goes on, as always, independently and outside of political proximity or enmity with Napoleon Bonaparte, and outside of possible transformations” . Contrary to the assertion of the primacy of the historical over the private, the author of the novel "War and Peace" looks at history from the bottom up, showing that the everyday life of ordinary ordinary people is wider and richer. It is the fundamental principle from which historical life grows. One of the brightest episodes confirming the put forward thesis is the uncomplicated conversation between the coachman and the cook Kutuzov (“Titus, go thresh”), given against the backdrop of the battle of the three emperors, in which the vain hopes of Alexander I collapsed, 20 thousand soldiers died, from the mass of young cavalry guards only 18 remained. According to Tolstoy, no matter how great the ups and downs of the rulers, the people remain immortal, and human life remains eternal.

6. What is the ratio of the “swarm” and the personality, the single and the whole in the system of philosophical views of L.N. Tolstoy?

For Tolstoy, the people (“swarm”) is a sensitive organism, spontaneously and unconsciously responding to external events. Thus, guerrilla warfare is given as a typical example, revealing the nature of the actions of the “swarm”. The most diverse people united in a common outburst of hatred for the enemy (deacon, elder Vasilisa, Petya Rostov, Dolokhov, Denisov). For Tolstoy, the people are the basis of the unity of the “swarm” life, with which the best part of the nobility strives for unity (Andrey Bolkonsky, Pierre Bezukhov). “They are firm, calm and they are simple. They don’t speak, but they do” – this is how Pierre sees Russian soldiers on the Borodino field.

If the historical process is the sum of the efforts of everyone, then the will of one person, be it Napoleon Bonaparte or Alexander I, cannot influence the course of events. The calling of a great man is to listen to the “collective subject” of history. This idea of ​​Tolstoy is embodied in the image of the great Russian commander Kutuzov.

7. What is the ambiguity of L.N. Tolstoy on the people, manifested in the novel?

In the epic, the people are presented from two angles. In the first, the people are depicted as a unity united by moral traditions (“the world”). This was most clearly manifested in the "hidden warmth of patriotism." In the second perspective, the people are shown as a crowd devoid of “simplicity, goodness and truth” (the riot in Bogucharov, the massacre of Vereshchagin). Such an aggressive mass needs "a man without convictions, without habits" as a leader.

8. What role does “fatum” play in the movement of history? What is the inconsistency of Tolstoy's judgments about the predestination of human existence?

L.N. In the epic novel, Tolstoy elevates the spontaneity and unconsciousness of the life of the people into the law of life and affirms them as the best features of the national character. So, in the description of the partisan war of 1812, the emphasis is on the spontaneity of the organization of the first partisan detachments. “Before the guerrilla war was officially accepted by our government, thousands of people of the enemy army were already exterminated by Cossacks and peasants ... just as unconsciously as dogs bite a runaway mad dog.”

In describing the actions of the best military heroes (Bagration, Kutuzov), the reader's attention is also drawn to their wise passivity in the most important battles associated with the historical fate of the country and people. Only they are able to “...become...carriers of the highest common meaning of history. Such is Kutuzov. In the image of the commander-in-chief of the Russian army in the war of 1812, all the best features of a person are concentrated, according to Tolstoy's plan. He is the embodiment of “simplicity, goodness and truth”, and therefore of true greatness, as he combines both the statesman’s mind, and the high art of generalship, and contemplative wisdom and passivity caused by knowledge of a higher plan. The truth of the historical fact and the originality of Tolstoy's ideas about the influence of "fatum" on the laws of the movement of history are so contradictory combined in the novel. It is Kutuzov who, by his own will, determines the place of the future general battle, takes full responsibility for the further course of events of the “swarm” history, giving the order to leave Moscow, but in the novel “... he will not offer anything of his own, will not interfere with anything useful.”

Another confirmation of the contradictory views of Tolstoy on the course of historical events is the idea of ​​the Russian national character, which affected the creation of two opposite types: a warrior who does not know compassion (G. Shcherbaty), and a meek and merciful type (P. Karataev).

Worksheet

(basic summary and questions)

The main provisions of Tolstoy's philosophy of history:

1. The historical process is not explained by the will, desires, deeds of individual great people - "historical figures". History is the result of the coincidence of interests and actions of many people who make up the mass of the people. This is the “swarm”, unconscious life of millions of people. The description of history should not be a biography of kings, heroes, generals.

2. The higher a person climbs the social ladder, the more he is dependent on the will of people and not free in his desires. This is the meaning of power.
“The tsar is the slave of history,” said Tolstoy.

3. Just as people themselves do not realize the significance of their actions for history, so the meaning of a historical event can only be appreciated by posterity.

4. As such, there is no cause for a historical event. Everything happens spontaneously and is controlled by the general laws of mass movement. It is impossible to consciously and reasonably influence the historical process.

In the novel, private and historical life are combined. Bolkonsky and Bezukhov begin to feel part of the common world during the events of 1812. Kutuzov wins the war because he understands what the "spirit of the army" is, which cannot be controlled, and Napoleon loses because he believes that everything is subject to his personal will. Napoleon and Kutuzov are contrasted in the novel, and not Napoleon and Alexander I, as it would be in traditional historical works.

The novel shows how Muscovites left their homes after the Battle of Borodino. They did not understand the important meaning of their actions, they did not understand that a great historical event was taking place. It became possible to appreciate it only with the passage of time.
Tolstoy's philosophy of history is connected with the genre of the work in the following way. Only in unity with others, with the “common life” can the hero develop and improve himself, receive a truly worthy reward for his efforts and searches in this direction. “The interest in each other of the individual and the people” - for Tolstoy, this means the synthesis of the novel and epic principles.

In the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky's "Crime and Punishment" debunks Raskolnikov's theory, the essence of which is that great people have the right to crime, because they are above moral laws. Throughout the novel, the writer refutes this idea. A great man cannot be free from human laws, which prescribe conscience, self-sacrifice, kindness. The individual is destructive to man, while the universal is salvation. For Dostoevsky, the main thing was the preservation of moral foundations in the historical process. The theory of pochvennichestvo, created by the writer, recognized that a huge country was transformed by the will of Peter. This means that Dostoevsky recognized the role of the individual in history. On the other hand, in the novel Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov sees a symbolic dream about trichinas in hard labor, which infect people with individualism. The result is the apocalypse.

M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin in "The History of a City" showed a parody of the traditional view of the history of the state in the form of a chain of successive rulers. The writer parodied episodes from The Tale of Bygone Years, The History of the Russian State by Karamzin. The focus of Saltykov-Shchedrin is the problem of the relationship between the authorities and the people. The coming of city rulers to power is accidental, as is sudden death. They appear out of nowhere and go nowhere. Of course, they transform the Foolovs with their power, but Saltykov-Shchedrin showed that the rulers and the Foolovites are one whole. The Foolovites themselves went looking for someone who would rule over them. "City governors whip, and the townsfolk tremble" - this is an indissoluble unity.

As a result of the activities of the mayors, "history stopped its course", i.e. the end of the world has come. But the river swept away the dam that Ugryum-Burcheev had erected and returned to its old course. This is a symbol of natural development, which is opposed to the absurd state power. Thus, Saltykov-Shchedrin also showed that sole power is destructive, and the natural course of life is stronger than far-fetched laws.

I.S. Turgenev in his novels reflected the history of Russia from the social upsurge of 1855 to the "going to the people" of the 1870s. The novels "Rudin", "The Nest of Nobles" showed that the hero-thinker leaves the historical stage. The writer formulated the idea of ​​the novel "On the Eve" (1860) as "the necessity of consciously heroic natures in order for things to move forward." Such a heroic nature in the novel is the Bulgarian Insarov, a fighter for the independence of his homeland.

So, Tolstoy's idea of ​​the role of the individual in history differs from that accepted in the 19th century by historical science. It also differs from the Western (and therefore individualistic) ideas of I.S. Turgenev. Some similarities are observed in the ideas of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, Saltykov-Shchedrin.

Scholars say that one of the least developed topics in philosophy is war.

In most works devoted to this problem, the authors, as a rule, do not go beyond the moral assessment of this phenomenon. The article will consider the history of the study of the philosophy of war.

Relevance of the topic

Even the ancient philosophers talked about the fact that humanity has been in a state of military conflict for most of its existence. In the 19th century, researchers published statistics confirming the sayings of the ancient sages. The period from the first millennium BC to the nineteenth century from the birth of Christ was chosen as a time period for study.

The researchers came to the conclusion that over the three millennia of history, only three hundred and more years are in peacetime. More precisely, for every calm year there are twelve years of armed conflict. Thus, we can conclude that about 90% of the history of mankind passed in an atmosphere of emergency.

Positive and negative vision of the problem

War in the history of philosophy has been evaluated both positively and negatively by various thinkers. So, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Mahatma Gandhi, Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy, Nicholas Roerich and many others spoke of this phenomenon as the greatest vice of mankind. These thinkers argued that war is one of the most senseless and tragic events in people's lives.

Some of them even built utopian concepts of how to overcome this social disease and live in eternal peace and harmony. Other thinkers, such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Vladimir Solovyov, argued that since the war has been going on almost continuously from the moment of the emergence of statehood to the present day, then there is certainly some sense in it.

Two different points of view

The prominent Italian philosopher of the 20th century was inclined to see the war in a somewhat romanticized light. He built his teaching on the idea that since during armed conflicts a person is constantly on the verge of life and death, he is in contact with the spiritual, non-material world. According to this author, it is at such moments that people are able to realize the meaning of their earthly existence.

The Russian philosopher and religious writer Vladimir Solovyov also considered the essence of war and its philosophy through the prism of religion. However, his opinion was fundamentally different from that of his Italian colleague.

He argued that war, in itself, is a negative event. Its cause is the nature of man, corrupted as a result of the fall of the first people. However, it happens, like everything that happens, by the will of God. According to this point of view, the meaning of armed conflicts is to show humanity how deeply it is mired in sins. After such a realization, everyone has the opportunity to repent. Therefore, even such a terrible phenomenon can be of benefit to sincerely believing people.

Philosophy of war according to Tolstoy

Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy did not adhere to the opinion that the Russian Orthodox Church had. The philosophy of war in War and Peace can be expressed as follows. It is well known that the author adhered to pacifist views, which means that in this work he preaches the rejection of any violence.

Interestingly, in the last years of his life, the great Russian writer was keenly interested in Indian religions and philosophical thought. Lev Nikolaevich was in correspondence with the famous thinker and public figure Mahatma Gandhi. This man became famous for his concept of non-violent resistance. It was in this way that he managed to achieve the independence of his country from the colonial policy of England. The philosophy of war in the novel of the great Russian classic is in many ways similar to these beliefs. But Lev Nikolaevich outlined in this work the foundations of his vision not only of interethnic conflicts and their causes. In the novel "War and Peace" the philosophy of history appears before the reader from a point of view unknown until then.

The author says that, in his opinion, the meaning that thinkers put into some events is visible and far-fetched. In fact, the true essence of things always remains hidden from human consciousness. And only heavenly forces are given to see and know the whole real interconnection of events and phenomena in the history of mankind.

He holds a similar opinion regarding the role of individuals in the course of world history. According to Leo Tolstoy, the influence on destinies that is rewritten by an individual political figure is in fact a pure invention of scientists and politicians who, in this way, try to find the meaning of some events and justify the fact of their existence.

In the philosophy of the war of 1812, the main criterion for everything that happens for Tolstoy is the people. It was thanks to him that the enemies were expelled from Russia with the help of the "Cudgel" of the general militia. In "War and Peace" the philosophy of history appears before the reader in an unprecedented form, since Lev Nikolayevich recounts the events as they were seen by the participants in the war. His storytelling is emotional because he seeks to convey the thoughts and feelings of people. Such a "democratic" approach to the philosophy of the war of 1812 was an indisputable innovation in Russian and world literature.

New military theorist

The war of 1812 in philosophy inspired another thinker to create a rather capital work on armed conflicts and how to conduct them. This author was the Austrian officer Von Clausewitz, who fought on the side of Russia.

This participant in the legendary events, two decades after the victory, published his book containing a new methodology for conducting military operations. This work is distinguished by its simple and accessible language.

For example, Von Clausewitz interprets the goal of a country's entry into an armed conflict in this way: the main thing is to subjugate the enemy to one's will. The writer proposes to fight until the enemy is completely destroyed, that is, the state - the enemy will be completely wiped off the face of the earth. Von Clausewitz says that the fight must be waged not only on the battlefield, it is also necessary to destroy the cultural values ​​that exist on enemy territory. In his opinion, such actions will lead to the complete demoralization of the enemy troops.

Followers of the theory

The year 1812 became a landmark for the philosophy of war, since this armed conflict inspired one of the most famous theorists of army management to create a work that guided many European military leaders, and which became a program in many universities of the corresponding profile around the world.

It was this ruthless strategy that the German generals followed in the First and Second World Wars. This philosophy of war was new to European thought.

Largely for this reason, many Western states were unable to resist the inhuman aggression of the German troops.

Philosophy of war before Clausewitz

To understand what radical new ideas were contained in the book of the Austrian officer, one should trace the development of the philosophy of war from ancient times to modern times.

So, the very first power clashes that happened in the history of mankind occurred due to the fact that one people, experiencing a food crisis, sought to plunder the wealth accumulated by neighboring countries. As can be seen from this thesis, this campaign did not contain any political background. Therefore, as soon as the soldiers of the aggressor army captured a sufficient amount of material wealth, they immediately left a foreign country, leaving its people alone.

Separation of spheres of influence

As powerful highly civilized states emerged and developed more and more, war ceased to be a tool for obtaining food and acquired new, political goals. Stronger countries sought to subordinate the smaller and weaker ones to their influence. The winners, as a rule, did not want to achieve anything other than the ability to collect tribute from the losers.

Such armed conflicts usually did not end with the complete destruction of the defeated state. The commanders also did not want to destroy any valuables that belonged to the enemy. On the contrary, the winning side often tried to prove itself highly developed in terms of the spiritual life and aesthetic education of its citizens. Therefore, in ancient Europe, as in many countries of the East, there was a tradition to respect the customs of other peoples. It is known that the great Mongol commander and ruler Genghis Khan, who conquered most of the known states of the world at that time, treated the religion and culture of the conquered territories with great respect. Many historians wrote that he often celebrated the holidays that existed in those countries that had to pay tribute to him. The descendants of the outstanding ruler also adhered to a similar foreign policy. Chronicles testify that the khans of the Golden Horde almost never gave orders to destroy Russian Orthodox churches. With great respect, the Mongols treated various kinds of artisans who skillfully mastered their profession.

Code of honor of Russian soldiers

Thus, it can be argued that the method of influencing the enemy in all possible ways, up to his final destruction, was completely contrary to the European military culture that had developed by the 19th century. Von Clausewitz's recommendations did not receive a response among the domestic military either. Despite the fact that this book was written by a man who fought on the side of Russia, the thoughts expressed in it came into sharp conflict with Christian Orthodox morality and therefore were not approved by the domestic senior command staff.

In the charter, which was used until the end of the 19th century, it was said that one should fight not in order to kill, but with the sole purpose of winning. The high moral qualities of Russian officers and soldiers were especially pronounced when our army entered Paris during the Patriotic War of 1812.

Unlike the French, who, on the way to the capital of the Russian state, robbed the population, the officers of the Russian army behaved with due dignity even on the territory of the enemy they had captured. There are cases when, celebrating their victory in French restaurants, they paid their bills in full, and when the money ran out, they took a loan from the establishments. The French have long remembered the generosity and generosity of the Russian people.

Whoever enters us with a sword will die by the sword

Unlike some Western confessions, primarily Protestantism, as well as a number of Eastern religions, such as Buddhism, the Russian Orthodox Church has never preached absolute pacifism. Many outstanding warriors in Russia are glorified as saints. Among them are such outstanding commanders as Alexander Nevsky, Mikhail Ushakov, and many others.

The first of these was revered not only in tsarist Russia among believers, but also after the Great October Revolution. The famous words of this statesman and commander, which served as the title of this chapter, became a kind of motto for the entire national army. From this we can conclude that in Rus' the defenders of their native land have always been highly valued.

Influence of Orthodoxy

The philosophy of war, characteristic of the Russian people, has always been based on the principles of Orthodoxy. This can be easily explained by the fact that it is this faith that is culture-forming in our state. Almost all Russian classical literature is imbued with this spirit. And the state language of the Russian Federation itself would be completely different without this influence. Confirmation can be found by considering the origin of such words as "thank you", which, as you know, means nothing more than a wish for the interlocutor to be saved by the Lord God.

And this, in turn, points to the Orthodox religion. It is this denomination that preaches the need for repentance for sins in order to earn mercy from the Almighty.

Therefore, it can be argued that the philosophy of war in our country is based on the same principles. It is no coincidence that George the Victorious has always been among the most revered saints in Rus'.

This righteous warrior is also depicted on the metal banknotes of Russia - kopecks.

Information war

At present, the importance of information technology has reached unprecedented strength. Sociologists and political scientists argue that at this stage of its development, society has entered a new era. It, in turn, replaced the so-called industrial society. The most important area of ​​human activity in this period is the storage and processing of information.

This circumstance affected all aspects of life. It is no coincidence that the new educational standard of the Russian Federation speaks of the need to educate the next generation, taking into account the constantly accelerating pace of technological progress. Therefore, the army, from the point of view of the philosophy of the modern period, should have in its arsenal and actively use all the achievements of science and technology.

Battles on another level

The philosophy of war and its significance at the present time can best be illustrated by the example of those reforms that are being carried out in the defense sphere of the United States of America.

The term "information war" first appeared in this country in the early nineties of the XX century.

In 1998, it acquired a clear, generally accepted definition. According to him, the information war is the impact on the enemy through various channels through which he receives new information about various aspects of life.

Following such a military philosophy, it is necessary to influence the public consciousness of the population of the enemy country, not only at the time of hostilities, but also in peacetime. Thus, the citizens of the enemy country, without suspecting it themselves, will gradually acquire a worldview, assimilate ideas that are beneficial to the aggressor state.

Also, the armed forces can influence the mood prevailing in their own territory. In some cases, this is required to raise the morale of the population, instill patriotic feelings, and solidarity with the policies that are being pursued at the moment. An example would be American operations in the mountains of Afghanistan, with the aim of destroying Osama bin Laden and his associates.

It is known that these actions were carried out exclusively at night. From the point of view of military science, this cannot be given a logical explanation. Such operations would be much more convenient to carry out during daylight hours. In this case, the reason lies not in the special strategy of conducting air strikes on points where militants are supposedly located. The fact is that the geographical location of the United States and Afghanistan is such that when it is night in an Asian country, it is day in America. Accordingly, live television broadcasts from the scene can be seen by many more viewers if they are broadcast when the vast majority of people are awake.

In the American literature on the philosophy of war and modern principles of its conduct, the term "battlefield" has now changed somewhat. Now the content of this concept has expanded significantly. Therefore, the very name of this phenomenon now sounds like “combat space”. This implies that the war in its modern sense takes place not only in the form of military battles, but also at the informational, psychological, economic and many other levels.

This largely corresponds to the philosophy of the book "On War", written almost two centuries ago by a veteran of the Patriotic War of 1812, Von Clausewitz.

Causes of the war

This chapter will examine the causes of war as seen by various thinkers from the pagan religions of antiquity to Tolstoy's theory of war. The most ancient Greek and Roman ideas about the essence of interethnic conflicts were based on the mythological worldview of a person of that time. The Olympic gods, worshiped by the inhabitants of these countries, seemed to people to be creatures that did not differ from themselves in anything except their omnipotence.

All the passions and sins inherent in an ordinary mortal were not alien to the celestials either. The gods of Olympus often quarreled with each other, and this enmity, according to religious teaching, led to a clash of different peoples. There were also separate gods, the purpose of which was to create conflict situations between different countries and incite conflicts. One of these higher beings, who patronized the people of the military class and arranged numerous battles, was Artemis.

Later ancient philosophers on war held more realistic views. Socrates and Plato talked about its causes based on economic and political considerations. Therefore, Karl Marx went the same way and In their opinion, most of the armed conflicts in the history of mankind occurred due to disagreements between the classes of society.

In addition to the philosophy of war in the novel "War and Peace", there were other concepts within which attempts were made to find causes for interstate conflicts other than economic and political.

For example, the famous Russian philosopher, artist and public figure Nicholas Roerich argued that the root of evil that gives rise to armed clashes is cruelty.

And she, in turn, is nothing but materialized ignorance. This quality of the human personality can be described as the sum of ignorance, lack of culture and foul language. And accordingly, in order to establish eternal peace on earth, it is necessary to overcome all the vices of mankind listed below. An ignorant person, from Roerich's point of view, does not have the ability to be creative. Therefore, in order to realize his potential energy, he does not create, but seeks to destroy.

mystical approach

In the history of the philosophy of war, along with others, there were concepts that were distinguished by their excessive mysticism. One of the authors of this doctrine was the writer, thinker and ethnographer Carlos Castaneda.

His philosophy in The Way of War is based on a religious practice called nagualism. In this work, the author claims that to overcome the delusions that reign in human society is the only true way of life.

Christian point of view

Religious teaching, based on the commandments given to mankind by the Son of God, considering the issue of the causes of wars, says that all the bloody events in the history of mankind occurred because of people's propensity to sin, or rather, because of their corrupted nature and inability to cope with it on their own. .

Here, in contrast to the philosophy of Roerich, it is not about individual atrocities, but about sinfulness as such.

A person cannot, without God's help, get rid of many atrocities, including envy, condemnation of neighbors, foul language, greed, and so on. It is this property of the soul that underlies small and large conflicts between people.

It must be added that the same reason lies at the basis of the emergence of laws, states, and so on. Even in ancient times, realizing their sinfulness, people began to fear each other, and often themselves. Therefore, they invented an instrument of protection against the unseemly deeds of their fellows.

However, as already mentioned in this article, the protection of one's own country and oneself from enemies in Orthodoxy has always been considered a blessing, since in this case such use of force is perceived as a fight against evil. Failure to act in such situations can be equated with sin.

However, Orthodoxy is not inclined to overly idealize the profession of the military. Thus, one holy father, in a letter to his spiritual disciple, reproaches the latter for the fact that his son, having an ability in exact sciences and the humanities, chose army service for himself.

Also, in the Orthodox religion, priests are forbidden to combine their service to the church with a military career.

Many holy fathers recommended that Orthodox soldiers and commanders pray before the start of the battle, as well as at its end.

Also, those believers who, by the will of circumstances, need to serve in the army, should do their best to fulfill what is indicated in the military regulations with the words “endure all hardships and hardships with dignity.”

Conclusion

This article was devoted to the topic of war from the point of view of philosophy.

It presents the history of addressing this problem, from ancient times to the present day. The points of view of such thinkers as Nicholas Roerich, Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy and others are considered. A significant part of the material is occupied by the theme of the novel "War and Peace" and the philosophy of the war of 1812.