Lecture: Groups of words by origin and use

Original Russian and borrowed vocabulary

Depending on how the words originated, they belong to native Russian and borrowed vocabulary.

Words that originate in Russian are called originally Russian.

Eg, silver, bag, lighter, faith, now.

Words that entered the Russian language from other languages ​​are called borrowed.

Eg, philology, jazz, athlete, money , vacation, play.

Active and passive vocabulary

Active vocabulary- words that are regularly used.

It is replenished due to the fact that new phenomena, concepts and, accordingly, new words appear - neologisms: rover, content, projector, rewriting. These words, initially accessible to a narrow circle of people, gradually become commonly used.

Passive, outdated vocabulary constitute words that have fallen out of living use.

It is divided into archaisms and historicisms.

Archaisms went out of active use due to the fact that they were replaced by new ones: if - if, hand - palm, eye - eye.

Historicisms became outdated, as the objects and the names they denoted disappeared:armor, carriage, cocked hat, bast shoes.

Expressive-stylistic vocabulary

In the vocabulary of the Russian language we can distinguish:

stylistically neutral

and stylistically colored.

Words, stylistically neutral, do not express any evaluation and are used in any style of speech.

Most of these words are: horse, walk, white, sit, in the distance.

IN stylistically colored vocabulary is divided into book and colloquial words, slang and colloquial words.

Book wordscharacteristic of bookish and written speech:thirst, lips, write.

Spoken words used in oral speech. A considerable part of them shows how the speaker relates to the named object, phenomenon, action, property, sign and gives their emotional assessment: grandfather, daughter, fidget, little boy. They give ease to speech and at the same time do not express rudeness.

Slang words are outside the boundaries of the literary language. They are characteristic of people of a separate social group, for example, schoolchildren, youth, athletes, and criminals. Students have an “automatic” - This is the receipt of an examination mark or test based on academic performance, without passing the exam or test.

Colloquial words T are also outside the boundaries of the literary language. They are stylistically reduced and give a socio-cultural characteristic to the speaker. Eg, theirs, for now, blurt out, big-headed, in bulk. Colloquial words also include vulgar, rude, swear words: go crazy, be stunned, be stunned, slam.

By origin, all words in the Russian language are divided into borrowed and native Russian.

Originally Russian are words that originated in the Russian language (ladya, life).

Borrowed English (carriage, sport, express), French (boulevard, garrison, restaurant, masterpiece).

Words that have fallen out of active use are called obsolete (Uryadnik, Chelo).

Among the obsolete words are:

Historicisms are words denoting the names of objects and phenomena that have gone out of use (chain mail, educational program);

Archaisms are words that have fallen out of use because they have been replaced by new ones (forehead - forehead).

Among the archaisms, the following groups are distinguished:

Lexico-phonetic (gate - gate);

Lexical and word-formative (fisherman - fisherman);

Lexico-semantic (words with an outdated lexical meaning: lover in the meaning of “beloved”).

Outdated words can serve as a means of imparting a solemn character to speech (“city of Peter”) and at the same time are used as a means of irony and ridicule: “The thorns of glory immediately dug into the noble foreheads of the companions” (I. Ilf and E. Petrov).

New words that appear in a language are called neologisms (cybernetics, algorithm). They appear as a result of the need to give names to new objects and phenomena that come into life in connection with the development of science, technology, art, and social relations.

Some neologisms lose their connotation of novelty and become commonly used: astronaut, traffic light.

According to the sphere of use, words in the Russian language are divided into commonly used and non-commonly used.

Common words are words that are used by all people, regardless of profession and place of residence (daughter, good).

Uncommon words include:

Dialecticisms are words used by residents of a particular area (bulba - potato, beet - beet);

Professionalisms are words used by people of one profession or another (lashings - fastening boats on ships to prevent them from moving);

Argo (jargon) - expressively colored words that denote well-known concepts in a narrow, socially limited circle of people (truncate - understand (youth argot)). Depending on the style of speech, words can be

1. Indicate words that are borrowed.

a) allocate c) passage

b) give d) vest

2. Indicate words that are originally Russian.

a) head b) peas

b) sketch d) spindle

3. Indicate words that are archaisms.

a) boots c) mayor

b) cheeks d) mouth

4. Indicate words that are historicisms.

a) October c) arshin

b) verst d) that

5. Indicate the sentences in which dialectisms occur.

a) The dear guest was served a towel and bread and salt (S. Antonov)

b) Our fortress stood on a high place, and the view from the rampart was beautiful: on one side a wide clearing, dug by several beams, ended in a forest that stretched to the very ridge of the mountains... (M. Yu. Lermontov)

c) All that remained was to overcome the ravine.

d) She was given a towel embroidered with roosters (L. Uvarova).

6. Indicate sentences in which professionalisms occur.

a) The artist spent long hours at the easel.

b) A scalpel in the hands of an experienced surgeon can work wonders.

c) Recently I read A. Rybakov’s book “Dagger, or “The Bronze Bird”.

d) In the summer we decided to go traveling by boat.

7. Indicate the word that corresponds to the lexical meaning: flaw, shortcoming, shortcoming.

a) defect c) statement

b) deformation d) transplantation

8. Indicate the lexical meanings of these words:

1) pygmy 3) pioneer

2) swindler 4) conscription A rascal

B an insignificant person, a nonentity C a person who started something new

G public or state duty of the population

9. In which sentence should the word understandable be used instead of the word understandable?

a) The instructions were written in clear and accessible language.

b) This requirement seems quite understandable to me.

c) The student turned out to be understandable.

d) Your doubts and hesitations were understandable to me.

10. Indicate the sentences in which lexical errors were made.

a) The dirt floor was cold on my feet.

b) I specially knitted a larger sweater to make it more voluminous.

c) He always played first violin at parties.

d) The plot of land was sold at a profit.

11. Indicate the rows in which all words are ambiguous.

a) weighty, spring, sweep

b) thirst, snake, canned food

c) ribbon, leader, flame

d) beat off, seal, authorized

12. Indicate in which row all words are used in their literal meaning.

a) weave a wreath, fly by plane, open a suitcase

c) gain confidence, fly headlong, blow up the situation

d) look for an approach, an intelligible answer, a path to the heart

13. Indicate in which series not all words are synonyms.

a) brave, courageous, daring

b) diligent, diligent, diligent

c) neat, neat, tidy

d) vain, vain, distant

14. Indicate which words are antonyms for the word flimsy.

a) sick b) healthy

b) tall d) unsightly

15. Indicate in which cases the lexical meaning of phraseological units is determined correctly.

a) Sharpen the laces - chat.

b) Sharpen your skis - run away.

c) Not in the eyebrow, but in the eye - very accurately.

d) Where crayfish spend the winter - close.

16. Indicate sentences in which errors were made when using borrowed words.

a) His speech at the meeting was pure demagoguery.

b) It was necessary to resort to improvisation.

c) We didn’t know when the store would open.

d) The sonorous voice of Peter (A. Pushkin) was heard.

17. Indicate sentences in which neologisms are used.

a) I love the vastness of our plans (V. Mayakovsky).

b) In the early 60s, interest in bionics arose.

c) These works can only be performed by high-altitude workers.

d) Vinegredia, Nesrydaniya, Dosvishvetsia, Dosvidaniya (A. Dolsky).

18. Indicate in which rows not all words are bookish.

a) think, well-being, competition

b) soda, fool, dandy

c) friendly, curiosity, interest

d) chatter (about something), chatter, diet

19. Indicate errors in the definition of terms. Dactyl is

a) two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable

b) two-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable

c) three-syllable poetic meter with stress on the first syllable

d) three-syllable poetic meter with stress on the second syllable

20. Indicate the lexical meaning of the word pragmatism.

a) prudence

b) rationalism

c) regularity

What is a unit of the Russian language? Definitely a word. With its help, we communicate, convey thoughts and experiences to each other. The article examines thematic groups of words that make it possible to classify the richness of the Russian language, which has more than 150 thousand nouns, verbs and adjectives in its literary dictionary.

Word meanings

The Russian language studies not actions, not signs, but the words that name them. They have two meanings:

• Grammatical (responsibility lies with the ending of the word).
• Lexical (the stem is responsible for it).

To understand what thematic groups of words are, let’s focus on the second point. Lexical meaning is the content, or the correlation historically fixed in people’s minds between the sounding shell and the phenomenon of reality, formalized according to the laws of grammar. A person is capable of thinking in concepts, that is, abstractly from objects, while a word, with its lexical meaning, separates one concept from another.

Generic and species concepts

When a person says the word “desk,” everyone imagines a desk—a piece of furniture for students to sit during classes. No one imagines an ordinary or dining table, because the word contains a set of distinctive features - a kind of generalization. But when the teacher invites the student to sit at his desk, actual meaning appears in the speech. In front of the student stands a specific object of a certain color, size, shape. This suggests that in the meaning of each word there is a denotation (generalization) and a referent (specification).

Among nouns, more general concepts (generic) and more specific (specific) can be distinguished. An example can be seen in the picture above. Thematic groups of words are a set of specific concepts that are combined into a more general one - generic. To understand, let’s look at the diagram (shown below), which discusses how the lexical meaning of a specific concept is formed. It is explained through a generic concept with the addition of specific differences. What's happened sneakers? These are shoes (generic concept) designed for sports. What else can be classified as shoes? Shoes, boots, slates, slippers, clogs, sandals, boots. All these words are combined into a single thematic group - “shoes”.

Thematic inclusions

What concept can be attributed to the words: fishing rod, net, spinning rod, bait, bloodworm, jig, fishing, hooking, bite? Fishing. The example discussed above is a sample of thematic inclusions. The game: “Find the extra word” best helps to understand what thematic groups of words are. Examples of the game are offered in the table below:

In each column you need to find an extra word that is not included in the thematic group. Answer: hare, worm, fox.

Synonyms

One thematic group, like inclusions, may include various parts of speech. The Fishing example includes nouns and verbs. Synonyms are distinguished by the fact that they are one part of speech: film, film, film, cinema; run, rush, rush, scurry; funny, amusing, hilarious, cool. Do they form thematic groups of words? Examples show that synonyms coincide in their lexical meaning and are used by the author only to give the text or statement a certain expressiveness. Most linguists classify synonyms as thematic groups. On average, they consist of several words, but there are exceptions. Thus, the word “very” has 26 synonyms.

The union occurs on the basis of a common characteristic. Take the adjective “red” as an example. The group will contain synonyms such as: ruby, coral, scarlet, red.

To do this you need to know:

• Lexical meaning of the word.
• Have a certain vocabulary.
• Have a broad outlook.

What can help the student? An explanatory dictionary that provides an explanation for every word used in the Russian language. The most famous authors who have collected all the wealth of Russian vocabulary are S.I. Ozhegov and D.N. Ushakov, although there are also more modern publications that have incorporated changes associated with the use of English expressions. For example, T.F. Efremova collected 160 thousand articles.

Thematic groups of words are easy to create for those who read a lot of fiction, actively use synonyms, and are able to identify words with similar meanings in the text. You can take an excerpt from a work of fiction as an example to search for synonyms. This task will also help:

It is necessary to highlight general (generic) concepts for the following words: mother, cow, ruler, calculator, sister, horse, eraser, pencil case, pig, brother, pen, grandfather, goat, grandmother, father, sharpener, sheep, dog.

The following thematic groups of words are distinguished: “Relatives”, “Animals”, “School supplies”.

Examples on the topic “Seasons”

What words can be used to describe phenomena such as seasons? To make it easier to complete the task, subgroups should be distinguished, for example: weather, nature, activities, clothing. They can be expanded. The principle of selection is the selection of generic concepts that underlie the differences between winter, autumn, summer and spring. How to create thematic groups of words? We present the names of the seasons in the table, comparing the subgroups.

	Summer	Autumn	Winter	Spring
Weather		Dankness Frost	Snowfall	Warming Thaw Changeability
Nature	Forbs	Leaf fall Gilding Bad weather Withering		Awakening Snowdrops Thawed patches Bloom
Classes		Blanks		Subbotnik Arrival of birds
Cloth	Swimsuit Sandals	Gloves		Cardigan Windbreaker Ankle boots

The example describes only objects and phenomena, but by analogy it is quite easy to add actions and attributes of objects.

If the alphabet were compiled according to the principle: “the number of letters corresponds to the number of phonemes of the language,” then the question of spelling would disappear by half. But since there are no ideal alphabets and they have evolved historically, reflecting different trends, the use of the alphabet in writing requires spelling rules. In addition to the rules for using letters to convey language, there are other rules of writing, such as, for example, the combined and separate spelling of words, the rules of hyphenation. Thus, orthography is a set of norms or rules of practical writing, consisting of: 1) rules for using letters of the alphabet when writing words, their forms and combinations, 2) rules for writing words and phrases, regardless of the included in their writing of letters. The norms for such writing are governed by various principles. For spelling, which is associated with the use of letters of the alphabet, six principles can be established, which are combined in pairs. The first principle is phonemic, the second is phonetic. The phonemic principle of writing is that each phoneme is expressed by the same letter, regardless of the position in which it falls: e.g. oak And oak are written the same, although pronounced differently: in the form oak -[b], i.e., a voiced consonant, and in the form oak at the end of the word this consonant is deafened. On the contrary, the phonetic principle of writing is that letters represent actually pronounced sounds; Thus, phonemic and phonetic spellings coincide in strong positions, but do not coincide in weak positions. So, som And myself are written the same both phonemically and phonetically, but in the case I caught the catfish myself - in Russian the spelling is phonemic, since strong positions suggest the distinction between [o] and [a], and phonetically the same statement would receive the following spelling: caught it myself - and where is the “fish” and where is the “fisherwoman” - you can’t tell. In Russian writing, exceptions to the phonemic principle can occur: 1) either in the composition of the alphabet: this is that there are twice as many vowel letters as there should be, and 12 fewer consonant letters than needed; in addition, there is no letter for the consonant [zh;]; 2) either because there are special spelling rules; for example, in spellings of prefixes with [z]: unemployed, But non-stop, eyebrowless, But careless and finally tasteless, where the letter is used h, Although h sounds in this case like [s]. However, when these consonants sound like "sibilants", for example in words silent, merciless, inhuman, And With remain according to the rule: “Before letters b, c, d, e, g, h, l, m, n, r is written h, and before the letters l, f, k, t, w, s, h, c, x is written With" In addition to this “rule” (which is rather an “exception” in Russian spelling), cases of phonetic spellings include writing the letter s after ts (gypsy, chicken, cucumbers, foxes, Lisitsyn), whereas it would be necessary to write in these cases after ts basic letter And, Wed surnames Lisitsian, Tsitsin, where the spelling is more phonemic. The basic rules of Russian spelling are based on the phonemic principle: “Write unstressed vowels in the same way as under stress, for example: water, water carrier, because water; forester, because forest, And fox breeder, because foxes".“Write voiced and voiceless consonants always in any position, such as before vowels, sonorant consonants and before [v], [v"], for example: fetus, because fruit, And raft, because raft; give away because tear off But file, because undermine; cur, because mongrels, But Masha, because Masek; climb, because I'm climbing, But carry, because I carry; swim with"erem" ( b), because bathe; that's why smoke, smoke And smokes, smokes are written differently." The third and fourth principles of orthography - etymological and traditional-historical - are based on reflecting in writing not the current state, but the past, and the etymological principle actually corresponds to the language in its past; these are the spellings of words with a letter e: bees, women, went, millet, lying, since in these cases there was once a phoneme [e] in the Russian language, but for the modern Russian language here [o], i.e. “ O after a soft consonant or after a hissing one”: cf. seam, zhokh, sword, cloak, rattle, tap, rustle etc., where the phonemic principle of writing 1 is correctly applied. The traditional historical principle, the most “unprincipled”, blindly preserving any tradition of writing, is based on the same principle of transmitting the past. These are the Church Slavonic spellings in Russian writing: assistant with a letter sch, although the Russian word does not come from Church Slavonic help, but from Russian help, that etymologically it would be necessary to write through h (helper), and phonemically through w(assistant), writing unstressed endings of adjectives -th, -th (spare, overseas, although under stress -th: spare, marine), writing an unstressed prefix once- With A, although under the accent [o], cf. meditation, But rest, flourish etc. In Russian spelling before the reform of 1917. there were many more such traditional spellings (her, instead of her, unstressed endings of adjectives -ago, -ago; the use of the letters fita and izhitsa, etc.). The fifth and sixth principles can also be compared: these are the morphological principle and the symbolic one. What they have in common is that they strive to convey the language not through phonetics, while morphological spellings reflect grammar (morphology), bypassing phonetics and even conflicting with it, and symbolic writings strive to distinguish lexical homonyms that are phonetically indistinguishable. An example of morphological spellings can be the use of a soft sign at the end of feminine words after hissing words (night, Where b useless, cf. Ray, or mouse, Where b written after the hard [sh], which is a clear contradiction); the fact that in such writings it is not a matter of etymology is shown by examples of foreign words to which this rule applies (false, mascara, Wed carcass masculine without b). A good example of symbolic writing was the distinction between two homonyms in pre-reform Russian orthography: peace(antonym war) And world(synonym universe). In modern Russian orthography, spellings such as set fire(verb with e) And arson(noun with O), show a combination of morphological and symbolic principles, because both grammar and vocabulary differ in them. Such writings as company And campaign, overpass And overpass, although the differences in spelling in these cases are based on foreign etymology. The symbolic principle includes the use of capital letters in proper names (cf. French And General French, frost And Father Frost); These examples show that the symbolic principle is associated with the manifestation of a unique ideography. In any orthography one can observe one or another combination of different principles, but each orthographic system is determined by the leading principles; Thus, for the Russian spelling system the leading principle is the phonemic principle, on the basis of which the basic spelling rules are built, while for most Western European orthographies the leading principles are etymological and traditional-historical (for example, for English or French spelling).